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Intel sold 1.000.000.000 processors in 25 years

17.06.2003

Intel Corporation celebrates the 25th anniversary of the production of semiconductor products based on its own architecture Back in 1978, the first processor from Intel in the x86 family was born - a 16-bit 8086 with a frequency of 4 MHz, which had only 77 thousand transistors.

Later, in 1982, its 8-bit version - 8088 went to the IBM PC XT trial line, which was destined to become the ancestor of all modern PCs. Microprocessor technology and semiconductor technology have come a long way since then, and today's Pentium 4 processor contains 55 million transistors and has a clock speed of 3 GHz.

Another event happened in April of this year - 86 years have passed since the release of the first x25 processor, and according to Mercury Research, during this time, Intel managed to sell 1000000000 (one billion) of such processors.

To be sure - an outstanding achievement that no one but Intel itself will be able to repeat in the foreseeable future - the company expects to sell the second billion processors by 2007.

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Mathematicians have developed the perfect espresso coffee 21.01.2020

Scientists have created a mathematical model for making espresso, which showed the optimal values of parameters that allow you to achieve repeatability of taste, while saving coffee. The key recommendation is to grind the beans to a certain size that is coarser than what is used today in most cases.

Espresso is one of the most popular ways to brew coffee. To obtain this drink, hot water under pressure is passed through ground roasted grains. Despite the prevalence of this method, the result of its application often differs from time to time. As a rule, this is attributed to the human factor, although there was no full evidence of this.

There are official guidelines for brewing espresso. According to them, the final volume of the drink should be from 25 to 35 milliliters, while water should be supplied under a pressure of 9 bar, at a temperature of 92 to 95 degrees Celsius and for 20-30 seconds, and the required mass of grains for one cup should be in range from 7 to 9 grams. However, many coffee shops deviate from these rules, as modern coffee machines allow you to adjust not only these parameters, but many others.

The final taste of coffee is determined by the ratio of concentrations of approximately two thousand chemical compounds contained in the beans. It is generally believed that the smaller the grind, the better the drink will be, as this increases the area of \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbcontact between coffee and water. However, in reality, it is very difficult to brew the same tasting espresso several times in a row.

Jamie Foster of the University of Portsmouth and colleagues have developed a new mathematical model for espresso brewing that offers an ingenious explanation for quality variability. According to the results of the work, the amount of brewed coffee depends non-linearly on the degree of grinding: as the grain size decreases, the dissolution productivity increases, but after a certain value it starts to fall.

The authors did not use direct modeling of all physical and chemical processes during the flow of water through coffee, but modified well-developed methods for simulating the movement of charged particles in lithium-ion batteries. It turned out that too fine grinding leads to partial clogging of the filter and a decrease in the proportion of the dissolving substrate.

Ultimately, the authors suggest using not the finest grind, adding slightly fewer grains and using less water. According to the researchers, this strategy results in saving money and resources, and ensures the reproducibility of the taste of the drink. However, this does not mean that there is only one parameter setting that produces the best coffee, as taste preferences vary from person to person. In some cases, it may be necessary to mix several brews in an optimized way to reproduce the preferred taste.

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