General psychology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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General psychology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

Psychology as a science. Subject of psychology
Principles of psychology
The space of psychology and working conditions in it
Main psychological trends and schools
Methodology and methods of psychology
Observation - a method of psychology
Experimental methods of psychology
Methods of psychological diagnostics and their classification
Methods of psychotherapy in psychology
Psychological counseling
Methods for processing the results of psychological research
Stages of development of prescientific psychology
The formation of psychology as a science
The history of the development of domestic psychology
The concept of activity
activity theory
Educational activities, training and education
Leading activity and psychological age
The concept of the psyche and its structure
Brain and psyche
Mind and activity
Concept of consciousness
Consciousness and activity
Cognitive Psychology
The concept of sensations
Types of sensations
Properties and pathophysiological patterns of sensations
Development of sensations
Exploration of sensations
The concept of perception
Types of perception
Perception properties
Theories of sensation and perception
Development of perception
Methods for studying various properties of perception
Representation, its characteristics and functions
View types
Individual features of the representation and its development
The concept of memory
Types of memory
Theories of memory
Mnestic abilities and levels of their development
Patterns of the flow of basic memory processes
Memory development
Methods for studying memory
Memory disorders
The concept of thinking
Types of thinking
Theories of thought
Forms of imagination or mental images
Creative thinking
Thinking and Learning
Operations of thinking
Qualities of the Mind
Development of thinking
The study of thinking
Thinking disorders
The concept of intelligence
Structure of the intellect
Intelligence score
The concept of imagination
Kinds of imagination
Characteristics and functions of the imagination
Creative thinking and imagination
Development of imagination
Exploration of the imagination
Image in perception, imagination and thinking
The concept of attention, its functions and forms
Kinds of attention
Attention Properties
Theories of attention
Physiological basis of attention
Development of attention
Learning attention
Speech and its functions
Speech research
The problem of personality in psychology
Personality theories
Man and culture
The structure of personality in various psychological theories
Typologies of personality
Activity and personality
Socialization of the individual
Concept of adaptation
Formation and development of personality according to the theory of E. Erickson
Personality research
Concept of character
Character typology
Character accentuations and their types
Formation of character
character study
The concept of temperament
Types of temperament
Physiological basis of temperament
Temperament research
The concept of abilities and inclinations
Ability classification
Ability Concepts
Abilities and Activities
Development of abilities
Ability Development Levels
Ability Research
The concept of motivation
Motivation theories
Motivation Research
Emotions and feelings
Theories of emotion
Functions of emotions
Emotionality and its structure
Development of emotions
Exploring emotions and feelings
Will and will
Physiological basis of will
Theories of will
Volitional structure
Strong-willed qualities
Development of volitional qualities
Will study
Communication concept
Types of communication
Communication and activities
Development of communication
Groups and collectives
Interpersonal perception

1. Psychology as a science. Subject of psychology

Psychology (Greek psyche - soul, logos - teaching, word) - the science of the laws of generation and functioning of mental reflection of objective reality in the process of human activity and animal behavior.

Psychology, as a science, is a system of theoretical, methodological and experimental means of cognition and study of mental phenomena, their precise subject definition, registration, analysis, ensuring the continuity of their results.

Modern scientific psychology, like any other systematic activity, represents a certain stage in the consistent development of human knowledge. The result of this development is the socio-historical experience accumulated in the process of people communicating with each other within the framework of this activity and existing in the form of concepts of norms and schemes of actions.

Object of study psychology and the object of application of psychological knowledge is a person. The object of knowledge and application of knowledge of general psychology is a healthy person. The object of study of clinical psychology and the application of its knowledge is a sick person.

The main goals of theoretical psychology:

1) the study of the natural principles of managing mental entities and human phenomena;

2) study of the principles of managing human behavior in general;

3) creation of the theoretical basis of the discipline:

a) obtaining data on the mental mechanisms of human behavior;

b) systematization of these data;

c) synthesis of the laws of psychology.

The goal of practical psychology is the use of the theory of psychology for: predicting human behavior, optimizing the control of a person by his behavior, morally justified effective external control of human behavior.

The task of theoretical psychology consists in describing the organization in time and space of relations between the elements of the mental entities (systems) of a person, as well as between the mental entities of a person and the environment in normal and pathological conditions.

The task of applied psychology is the development of evidence-based measures for the structural and functional optimization of human behavior in general and its constituent systems in normal and pathological conditions.

Distinguish scientific and worldly psychology.

The subject study of general psychology are the essence and patterns of emergence, development and manifestation of the psyche of man and animals.

Differences between scientific psychology and worldly:

1) scientific psychology is limited by the field of research, everyday psychology is practically unlimited;

2) scientific psychology is based on experience verified by scientific and psychological experiments, which differ from worldly ones in rigor and conditions, worldly - on individual experience;

3) scientific psychology systematizes knowledge in the form of logical non-contradictory provisions, axioms and hypotheses. The experience of everyday psychology can be streamlined in traditions and rituals, folk wisdom, aphorisms, but the foundations of such systematizations remain specific, situational;

4) the experience of scientific psychology contains information about the conditions necessary and sufficient for the reproduction of certain phenomena. The acquired knowledge is ordered in scientific theories and is transmitted by mastering generalized, logically connected provisions, which serve as the basis for putting forward new hypotheses. Thanks to the development of the experimental approach, scientific experience contains facts that are inaccessible to worldly psychology. Everyday psychology does not fix the real conditions in which they were obtained, and these conditions are decisive when trying to use what another person knows and in a new situation.

2. Principles of psychology

The principle of determinism (from Latin determino - I determine) consists in the fact that the explanation of any phenomenon or event is based on the disclosure of its causal relationships with other phenomena or events and the analysis of the regular interaction of empirically established factors that cause its occurrence.

The principle of determinism in psychology is expressed in the following forms:

1) the principle of determinism as a doctrine of causality - the current state of the psyche and the behavior of the individual is determined (conditioned) by the previous events of his life, and the whole variety of observed phenomena of human life is determined by the interaction of two groups of factors: heredity and the surrounding biosocial environment (the system of education in the family, cultural environment child, institutions of socialization, etc.). The principle of determinism involves the influence on mental processes of both the external environment and the inner world of the individual. The determinants of the inner world can be motives, needs, values, etc. These determinants predetermine the final result of the activity, indirectly influencing external conditions and making changes to the system of connections and relations with the outside world. The specified interrelation and mutual influence of external and internal factors of development of the personality received the name of "mutual determinism";

2) statistical determinism - the same causes give rise to different (within certain limits) effects, subject to statistical patterns (probabilistic causality);

3) determinism of the feedback type - the consequence affects the cause that caused it;

4) target determinism - a goal that precedes the result, determines the process of achieving it, determines the choice of means and strategies;

5) system determinism - individual elements of the system depend on the properties of the entire system.

The principle of consistency consists in the fact that the phenomena of reality must be considered in their relationship and mutual influence with the elements of the integral system of which they are part, giving it new properties. The object under study is considered as an organized integrity or as a structural and functional element of this integrity.

The system approach is based on the following postulates:

1) the development of the psyche goes from the general to the specific;

2) mental integrity and its occurrence is subject to certain laws;

3) individual elements of the psyche arise from the whole;

4) mental phenomena, as part of the whole, have properties that are different from the properties of a single mental phenomenon;

5) an integral system has not only the properties of its individual components, but also its own properties.

The principle of development or the genetic principle consists in recognizing the regular nature of the change in the studied mental phenomena, their transition from one level of organization to another, the emergence of new forms of mental phenomena and processes. A correct understanding of the concept of "psyche" can be achieved only when considering it as the result of an action and a product of development.

The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, characteristic of the Russian psychological school, is that consciousness and activity, not being identical or opposite concepts, form a unity. At the same time, consciousness forms dynamic models of activity, on the basis of which a person is oriented in the environment.

Based on the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, it is possible to elucidate the internal psychological mechanisms that ensure the success of achieving the goals of actions, the discovery of the objective laws of the psyche.

3. Space of psychology and working conditions in it

The space of modern psychology, according to A. Kedrov, is in the center between the social, natural sciences and technical sciences. Conventionally, the space of psychology is divided into the following main industries:

1) social Psychology - studies the socio-psychological manifestations of a person's personality, his relationship with people, with a group, socio-psychological manifestations in large groups (the effect of radio, the press, fashion, rumors on various communities of people), the psychological compatibility of people;

2) child psychology - studies the features of the formation and stages of development of mental activity in the process of growing up a child;

3) pedagogical psychology - studies the patterns of personality development in the process of education, upbringing, develops the most effective teaching methods, using the discoveries of cognitive psychologists and theorists involved in the study of learning processes;

4) psychophysiology - studies the physiological and biochemical changes occurring in the nervous system, trying to determine the relationship between them and various aspects of human activity (thinking, memory processes, sleep, etc.);

5) neuropsychology - studies the role of individual elements of the nervous system involved in the development of mental processes, traces changes in mental processes that occur with local lesions or irritations of the brain;

6) psychopharmacology - studies the effect of medicinal substances on the behavior of experimental animals. After countless tests have been carried out and the results analyzed, a substance can be submitted for human testing;

7) zoopsychology - studies the psychology of the behavior of various animal species, trying to understand the specifics of human nature, establishing family ties between man and the animal world;

8) legal psychology - studies and provides psychological assistance in resolving the relationship between correctional institutions and prisoners or between the latter and their families, helps the courts to assign such punishments to criminals that would contribute to their return to society;

9) military psychology - explores ways to improve command methods, strengthen ties between different groups, studies methods for introducing intelligence officers into enemy troops;

10) sports psychology - studies psychological ways to achieve maximum sports results;

11) conflictology - a branch of psychology that studies conflicts, the causes and consequences of their occurrence, as well as methods for their prevention and resolution;

12) engineering psychology - studies the regularities of the processes of interaction between a person and modern technology in order to use them in the practice of designing, creating and operating automated control systems, new types of equipment;

13) aviation, space psychology - analyzes the psychological characteristics of the activity of a pilot, astronaut;

14) medical psychology studies - the psychological characteristics of the doctor's activity and the behavior of the patient, develops psychological methods of treatment and psychotherapy;

15) labor psychology - considers the psychological characteristics of a person's labor activity, the patterns of development of labor skills.

Other branches of psychology are also distinguished: the psychology of labor, advertising, etc.

The main conditions of work in the space occupied by psychology is the study of the mental processes of humans and animals, based on theoretical, methodological and experimental means of understanding mental phenomena, their study and analysis.

4. Main psychological trends and schools

Structuralism - the psychological school of W. Wund, which was engaged in the search for the initial ingredients of the psyche (identified with consciousness). Representative: E. Titchener.

Functionalism - a psychological direction, whose supporters, rejecting the analysis of internal experience and its structures, tried to find out how these structures work when they solve problems related to the actual needs of people. Representatives: F. Brentano, K. Stumpf.

introspective psychology (from lat. introspecto - I look inside, peer) - directions in psychology that recognize the only method of psychology to observe the content and acts of one's own consciousness. Representatives: T. Lipps, O. Kulpe.

Behaviorism - direction in psychology XNUMXth century, which denies consciousness as a subject of scientific research and reduces the psyche to various forms of behavior, understood as a set of reactions of the body to environmental stimuli. Representatives: E. Thorndike, D. Watson.

Psychoanalysis (depth psychology) - the teachings of Z. Freud on the deep structures of the psyche. Freud believed that the mind is made up of three layers - conscious, preconscious and unconscious, - in which the main structures of the personality are located. The contents of the unconscious are inaccessible to awareness. Preconsciousness can be realized by a person with desire and considerable efforts. Studying the role of sexual experiences and childhood mental trauma, Freud came to the conclusion that consciousness masks the motives of his actions, incomprehensible to the individual. He introduced the concepts of defense mechanisms, frustration, identification, repression, fixation, regression, free associations, the power of the Self, and others. Representatives: O. Rank, K. Abraham.

Analytical psychology - a psychological direction, according to which, in addition to the personal, there is a collective unconscious, which can never become the content of consciousness. Through it, by inheritance (through the structure of the brain), the experience of previous generations can be transmitted. The primary formations of the collective unconscious - archetypes (universal prototypes) underlie the symbolism of creativity, various rituals, dreams and complexes. Representative: K.G. Jung.

Individual psychology - one of the areas of psychoanalysis, according to which the structure of the child's personality (individuality) is laid in early childhood (up to 5 years) in the form of a special "lifestyle" that determines its further development and goals. If the goals are unrealistic, a neurotic and asocial personality develops. The conflict between the innate social feeling and the feeling of inferiority (complex) includes the mechanisms of compensation and overcompensation, gives rise to the desire for personal power, superiority over others and deviation from socially valuable norms of behavior. Representative: A. Adler.

genetic psychology - a psychological direction, which considers the development of the intellect to be the basis of mental development. The stages of mental development are the stages of the development of the intellect, through which the child gradually passes in the formation of an increasingly adequate scheme of the situation. The basis of this scheme is precisely logical thinking. Representatives: J. Piaget.

Humanistic psychology - direction in psychology, according to which the main subject of psychology is the personality, which is an "open possibility" of self-actualization. Representatives: G. Allport, A. Maslow.

Cognitive Psychology - one of the leading areas of modern foreign psychology, the main task of which is to prove the decisive role of knowledge in the behavior of the subject. Representatives: W. Neisser, S. Schechter.

5. Methodology and methods of psychology

Scientific work objectively in its methodology always implements this or that methodology. The methodology of psychology is understood as a set of prerequisites, principles, methods and means of cognition that correspond to the essence of the objects of cognition. Consistent and fruitful implementation of the methodology is possible only with the awareness of this methodology. Being a conscious methodology, it should not turn into a form that is mechanically imposed from the outside on the specific content of science. It must be revealed within the content of science in the laws of its own development. An important role is also played by the way in which this or that knowledge is obtained.

Methods or means of cognition are the ways by which the process of cognition of the subject of science takes place. The specificity of scientific psychology is the use of a large number of different scientific methods for the accumulation of its data.

There is a certain conditionality of the facts obtained in an empirical study with put forward hypotheses, preliminary knowledge about the reality under study, etc.

The methods of psychology developed in scientific (theoretical) research, after determining their effectiveness and reliability, come to the service of practical psychology.

Types of psychological research methods:

1) non-experimental psychological methods:

a) observation;

b) conversation - a dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological characteristics of the other;

c) content analysis. - method of document analysis. It is used in practical psychology, psychology of advertising and communication, when analyzing the results of applying projective tests, materials and conversations, etc. Advantages: there is no effect of the researcher on the behavior of the subjects, the data is checked for reliability, this method can be recommended for the analysis of historical documents, etc. d.;

d) monographic method - a synthetic method used for a deep, thorough, longitudinal study of the age and individual characteristics of individual subjects with the fixation of their behavior, activities and relationships with others in all major areas of life. At the same time, researchers seek, based on the study of specific cases, to identify the general patterns of the structure and development of certain mental formations;

2) diagnostic methods - methods aimed at identifying and measuring individual psychological characteristics of a person:

a) tests (from the English test - test, test) - standardized tasks, the result of which allows you to measure the psychological characteristics of the subject. The purpose of the test study is to test, diagnose certain psychological characteristics of a person, and its result is a quantitative indicator that is correlated with previously established relevant norms and standards;

3) experimental methods - active intervention of the researcher in the activity of the subject in order to create conditions that clearly reveal the psychological fact;

4) formative methods - methods aimed at the formation of certain psychological characteristics:

a) developing methods are aimed at the formation of certain abilities, opportunities, interests;

b) psycho-corrective methods are aimed at correcting the shortcomings in the development of certain psychological characteristics of a person;

c) psychotherapeutic methods are aimed at changing some of the personality characteristics of a person.

Typically, psychological research uses a set of different methods that mutually control and complement each other.

6. Observation - a method of psychology

Surveillance - these are one of the main methods of psychology, the essence of which is registration (in writing or by technical means), scientific explanation of the causes of the facts obtained and the establishment of unknown or little studied patterns. Observation has found wide application, especially in child psychology.

Observation is one of the oldest methods of cognition, widely used in everyday practice.

Requirements for scientific observation:

1) purposefulness - a clear statement of the goals and objectives of the study;

2) intentionality;

3) selectivity - the choice of the object of observation and its specific features of behavior and activity;

4) regularity - the development of a specific observation plan;

5) systematic;

6) the naturalness of the conditions for conducting the observation;

7) photographic observation - the most complete and objective fixation of the observed and the conditions of observation.

The subject of objective psychological observation is the psychological content of external reactions, various movements and gestures.

Types of observation:

1) by observation time:

a) slice - short-term observation e;

b) longitudinal - long-term observation;

2) by coverage:

a) selective - a certain group of people or part of a group is being studied;

b) solid - all members of the group are examined;

c) participant observation - a study in which the observer becomes a member of the study group;

3) according to the direction of observation:

a) objective observation - observation of an object;

b) self-observation or introspection, i.e. direct or delayed observation of one’s own internal mental processes (in memoirs, diaries, memoirs, a person analyzes what he thought, felt, experienced) is one of the varieties of observation. In some cases, self-observation and objective observation actually represent two different directions in the analysis or interpretation of the same initial data. In one case, we move from the indications of our consciousness, which reflect objective reality, to the disclosure of those mental processes that led to such, and not to another, reflection of it; in the other, from these indications of consciousness, reflecting objective reality, we move on to revealing the properties of this reality;

c) analysis of activity products (drawings, tests, etc.). The object of research in this case is the mental processes that are realized as a result of action.

Observation procedure:

1) setting the task and goals;

2) the choice of an object, subject and situation for research;

3) choice of the most effective method of observation;

4) choice of methods for recording results;

5) processing and analysis of the results.

Research, based on a certain understanding, usually sooner or later reveals facts that destroy or modify the old, original understanding, which led to their disclosure and leads to a new one; and a new understanding orients research towards new facts, and so on.

Observation as a scientific method in addition to recording facts includes the formulation of hypotheses in order to test them on new observations and, noting exceptions, refine the original hypotheses or replace them with new ones.

Advantages: the ability to study mental processes in natural conditions while maintaining the naturalness of the mental manifestations of the subject.

Disadvantages: passivity, the impossibility of quantitative analysis, the exact establishment of the cause of a mental phenomenon.

When studying phenomena in which the relationship between the external side of behavior and its internal psychological content is more or less complex, objective observation must be supplemented by other methods of investigation.

7. Experimental methods of psychology

Experiment - the main method of psychological research, based on the active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject in order to create conditions in which a psychological fact is revealed.

Advantages: the ability to artificially evoke phenomena of interest to the experimenter, clearly take into account the influence of conditions on the mental phenomena being studied, quantitatively change the conditions and change some conditions while keeping others unchanged.

Disadvantages:

1) the artificiality of the experiment or its remoteness from life, due to the loss of conditions essential for the phenomenon under study;

2) analyticity and abstractness of the experiment. The experiment is usually carried out in artificial conditions, and therefore, the features and patterns of the course of mental processes, which are often abstract in nature, revealed during the experiment, do not make it possible to draw direct conclusions about the patterns of the course of these processes in natural conditions.

3) the complicating role of the influence of the experimenter. In this regard, sometimes they try to eliminate the direct influence of the experimenter and construct the experiment in such a way that it is not the intervention of the experimenter, but the situation itself that evokes in the subject the acts to be investigated.

The task of a psychological experiment is to make available to external observation the essential features of the internal mental process. This is achieved by varying the conditions for the flow of external activity in search of a situation in which the external flow of the act would adequately reflect its internal psychological content, confirming the correctness of a single psychological interpretation of an action or deed, excluding the possibility of all others.

Types of experiments:

1) according to the conditions of the event:

a) laboratory experiment - takes place in special conditions using special equipment that allows you to strictly fix the features of external influences and the corresponding mental responses of a person. The actions of the subject are determined by the instruction. The subject knows that an experiment is being conducted, although he may not understand the true meaning of the experiment until the end. Advantages: the possibility of conducting an experiment multiple times with a large number of subjects, which makes it possible to establish general reliable patterns in the development of mental phenomena. Used by: for the study of physiological and cognitive processes, psychological manifestations, in the study of integral human activity;

b) a natural experiment - is carried out in the usual environment for the subject or for the given phenomenon, while maintaining the natural content of the activity. Advantages: a combination of the naturalness of observation methods and the activity of the experiment. Used by: in management psychology, social, pedagogical psychology.

Varieties of natural experiment are:

- psychological and pedagogical experiment - the study of the mental characteristics of the student directly in the process of education and upbringing;

- sociometry - the study of personal characteristics of a person and the relationship between members of the team. On the basis of sociometric data, the place of the individual in the team, the nature of existing relationships, their hierarchy, etc. are determined;

2) by the nature of the experiment:

a) a stating experiment reveals (states) facts, patterns that have developed in the course of human development.

b) a formative experiment reveals the conditions, patterns, psychological mechanisms for the development of certain properties, qualities, abilities, through their formation.

8. Methods of psychological diagnostics and their classification

Psychodiagnostic methods - methods by which it is possible to identify and measure the individual psychological characteristics of a person.

Feature: allow you to correlate the data obtained with certain indicators that act as a criterion for the presence or severity of any sign.

Requirements for psychodiagnostic methods:

1. validity - the validity of the conclusions obtained as a result of the application of this methodology;

2. reliability - characterizes the possibility of obtaining sustainable indicators using this method;

3. the unambiguity of the methodology - is characterized by the extent to which the data obtained with its help reflect changes in precisely and only the property for which this methodology is used;

4. Accuracy - reflects the ability of the technique to subtly respond to the slightest changes in the evaluated property that occur during the psychodiagnostic experiment.

Classifications of psychodiagnostic methods:

1. by quality:

a) standardized;

b) non-standardized;

2. by appointment:

a) general diagnostic (personality tests by type of questionnaires R.Kettell or G. Eysenka, general intelligence tests);

b) aptitude tests;

c) tests of special abilities (technical, musical, tests for pilots);

d) achievement tests;

3. according to the material operated by the subject:

a) blank;

b) subject (Koos cubes, "addition of figures" from the Veksler set);

c) hardware (devices for studying the features of attention, etc.);

4. by the number of subjects:

a) individual;

b) group;

5. according to the form of the answer:

a) oral;

b) written;

6. by leading orientation:

a) speed tests;

b) power tests - characterized by the difficulty of tasks and not limited time to solve them. The researcher is interested in both success and the method of solving the problem;

c) mixed tests;

7. according to the degree of homogeneity of tasks:

a) homogeneous - tasks are similar to each other and are used to measure well-defined personal and intellectual properties;

b) heterogeneous - tasks are diverse and are used to assess various characteristics of intelligence;

8. by complexity:

a) isolated tests;

b) test kits (batteries);

9. by the nature of the answers to the tasks:

a) tests with prescribed answers;

b) tests with free answers;

10. by scope mental:

a) personality tests;

b) intellectual tests;

11. by the nature of mental actions:

a) verbal;

b) non-verbal;

12. according to the characteristics of the methodological principle that is the basis of this technique:

a) objective tests (tests, many questionnaires, scale techniques). They are characterized by a minimum degree of involvement of a psychodiagnostic in the procedure for conducting, processing and interpreting the result. The measure of involvement is characterized by the influence of experience, professional skills, the personality of the experimenter and his other characteristics, the diagnostic procedure itself;

b) standardized self-reports:

- tests-questionnaires, open questionnaires;

- scale techniques (C.Osgood semantic differential), subjective classification;

- individually oriented techniques (ideographic) such as role-playing repertoire grids;

c) projective techniques (the Rorscharch method, the technique of incomplete sentences, the thematic apperceptive test, etc.) are based on the idea that personal characteristics of a person are embodied in perceptions, interpretations, explanations of certain phenomena and events;

d) dialogic techniques (conversations, interviews, diagnostic games). Characterized by a high degree of involvement.

9. Methods of psychotherapy in psychology

Methods of psychotherapy - these are psychological methods of influence that lead to certain changes in the personal development of a person, his psychological characteristics, applied to both sick and healthy people.

Allocate group and individual methods of psychotherapy.

The most widespread forms of work are group work, the advantages of which are in communication with other people who have the same experience, which solves one of the main psychological problems - the problem of loneliness, creates support and feedback. Group psychotherapy methods are often combined with individual sessions.

Types of psychotherapeutic methods:

1) case methodis to learn to solve difficult, non-standard tasks, find a way out of difficult situations in a limited time with a lack of information.

2) psychological games and exercises - a group of psychotherapeutic methods consisting in modeling life, production, interpersonal and other situations. Games and exercises can be individual and group. In addition to solving industrial and interpersonal problems, this group of methods helps to relax, emancipate, and contributes to the rapid acquisition of social experience. An obligatory stage of any game is the discussion, analysis of the behavior and experiences of different participants;

3) developmental and psycho-corrective programs - a group of psychotherapeutic methods aimed at the formation of certain intellectual or personal characteristics. Many educational programs consist of a set of various games. Widespread in the practical psychology of education;

4) brainstorming method (attack)consists in group problem solving. Allows you to achieve the full realization of a person's creative abilities by removing psychological barriers that interfere with the creative solution of the problem (stereotypes of behavior, fear of failure, general enslavement, inertness, etc.). Brainstorming takes place in several stages. The first stage is the presentation of the problem, while all participants are asked to freely express their ideas for solving the problem, regardless of how real they are. The main task is to sound as many ideas as possible. Criticism of one's own and other people's ideas is prohibited. At the next stage, ideas are combined, modified. The last stage is the selection and evaluation of ideas;

5) conversation - a method of providing psychological assistance, aimed at a person's awareness of his problems, conflicts, the psychological causes that gave rise to them and the way to solve them;

6) formative methods- methods of psychological development of certain qualities, abilities and properties through their active formation;

7) group discussion - discussion in the group of any problems that are significant for the majority of the participants, or the individual past experience of one of the participants. At the same time, participants are asked to avoid advice, assessments of the statements of others, general views, opinions, abstract judgments or conclusions, the expression of their own attitude, personal experiences is encouraged;

8) training sessions - group psychological methods aimed at developing professional, communication skills, as well as communication skills, skills, self-regulation, etc. The most common are interpersonal interaction trainings that help solve problems that arise in communication, understand and predict the thoughts, feelings and actions of others people to develop self-confidence. Trainings related to the development of professionally significant qualities have also become widespread.

10. Psychological counseling

Psychological counseling - it is a set of procedures aimed at helping a person in resolving psychological problems and making decisions regarding professional career, marriage, family, personal development and interpersonal relationships.

Goals of psychological counseling:

1) to promote behavior change so that the client can live more productively, experience life satisfaction, despite some inevitable social restrictions;

2) develop coping skills when faced with new life circumstances and demands;

3) ensure the effective adoption of vital decisions;

4) develop the ability to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships;

5) facilitate the realization and increase of the potential of the individual.

Stages of the process of psychological counseling:

1) problem research - the consultant establishes contact with the client and achieves mutual trust;

2) two-dimensional problem definition - the consultant tries to characterize the client's problems as accurately as possible, establishing both their emotional and cognitive aspects. Clarification of problems is carried out until the client and the consultant reach the same understanding; problems are defined by specific concepts. The precise definition of problems allows you to understand their causes, and sometimes indicates ways to solve them. If difficulties, ambiguities arise in identifying problems, it is recommended to return to the research stage;

3) identification of alternatives - possible alternatives for solving problems are found out and openly discussed. The consultant encourages the client to name all the possible options that he considers suitable and real, helps to put forward additional alternatives, but does not impose his own solutions. During the conversation, a written list of options can be drawn up to make it easier to compare them. Find the most effective problem solving alternatives that could be directly used by the client;

4) planning. At this stage, a critical evaluation of the selected solution alternatives is carried out. The counselor helps the client figure out which alternatives are appropriate and realistic in terms of previous experience and present willingness to change. After that, a realistic problem solving plan is drawn up. However, not all problems can be solved: some require too much time; others can only be partially resolved by reducing their destructive, behavior-disrupting impact. In terms of solving problems, it should be provided by what means and methods the client will check the realism of the chosen solution (role-playing games, "rehearsal" of actions, etc.);

5) activities - Consistent implementation of the problem solving plan. The consultant helps the client to build activities taking into account the circumstances, time, emotional costs, as well as understanding the possibility of failure in achieving goals. The client must learn that partial failure is not yet a disaster and that the plan for solving the problem should continue to be implemented, linking all actions to the ultimate goal;

6) evaluation and feedback. At this stage, the client, together with the consultant, evaluates the level of achievement of the goal (the degree of problem resolution) and summarizes the results achieved. If necessary, it is possible to refine the solution plan. When new or deeply hidden problems arise, a return to the previous stages is necessary.

The allocation of stages is conditional, since in practical work some stages merge with others, and their interdependence is much more complicated.

11. Methods for processing the results of psychological research

Qualitative processing of research results - a method of primary data processing aimed at determining the qualitative characteristics of the studied mental processes and phenomena.

Qualitative data processing begins with a preliminary determination of indicators by which one can judge the qualitative features of the studied mental phenomenon or identify these indicators in the process of analyzing factual material (for example, the study of thinking on the material of mastering concepts by students of different ages or in different learning conditions). Next, you should choose indicators that will be used to characterize the qualitative features of mastering concepts. In the above example, qualitative indicators can be: the completeness of the selection of features, the degree of their significance, the nature of the relationship between features and concepts, operating them in various situations, etc.

Most often, the qualitative processing of research materials is supplemented by a quantitative one, which makes it possible to determine and prove the typicality of the found quality.

Quantitative processing of results is made on the basis of mathematical methods widely used in science, such as methods of variation statistics (allow to establish the average quantitative value of indicators, the degree of diversity and discrepancy of data, the presence or absence of a connection between the series of mental phenomena), statistical methods to establish the reliability of the results of the study (allow to judge the typicality of differences in certain indicators, their reliability, the required number of subjects, etc.).

Methods of alternative, variance, correlation and factor analyzes are also used to process the results of psychological research.

Alternative analysis - this is an expression in quantitative terms of the studied signs, properties and qualities of mental phenomena. An alternative analysis allows you to identify the presence of certain qualities, characteristics in the subjects. Of the quantitative indicators, the most commonly used are: structure indicators (the ratio between the part and the whole expressed as a percentage) and ratio indicators (the ratio between the parts of the whole expressed as a percentage).

Analysis of variance consists in assessing the factors influencing the trait under study, and determining the degree of influence of each of them. The experimenter himself determines the circle of those factors, the effect of which on the studied trait must be checked. The value of dispersion is a measure that characterizes the degree of diversity of influences of a particular factor on the trait under study.

Correlation analysis allows you to establish the degree of relationship between the signs of mental phenomena. Correlation analysis is carried out in the case when the influence on mental processes is implied not only by the studied factor, but also by other factors. Correlation dependence is based on the principle of ambiguity (when the value of one attribute changes, other attributes will take on different values). The magnitude of the correlation dependence is determined by calculating various coefficients that allow us to quantify the degree of relationship between mental phenomena (with a coefficient of 0,3-0,5 - the relationship is moderately expressed; 0,5-0,7 - the relationship is significant; 0,7-0,9 connection is strongly pronounced.

Factor analysis is carried out on the basis of correlation matrices, the processing of which is carried out using special computer programs. It allows you to establish the number of dependent and independent factors, the weight of factors in the group and identify unknown factors whose influence affects the phenomenon under study.

12. Stages of development of pre-scientific psychology

The first ideas about mental phenomena arose in antiquity. Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle believed that the soul ("psyche") is immortal and can exist outside the body (animism), wandering through the bodies of animals and plants. Plato divided mental phenomena into reason - in the head, courage (will) - in the chest and desires (motivation) - in the abdominal cavity. Aristotle defines the functions of memory (storage and reproduction of sensations, sensory perceptions) and thinking (making judgments and conclusions). He recognized the existence of a divine mind ("nousa").

The development of science contributes to the development of the doctrine of the universal animation of nature - hylozoism - which came from the East. According to Heraclitus, nature is material and spiritual at the same time. Cosmos is "an ever-living fire", the soul is its spark. According to Democritus, the soul consists of atoms and is the source of energy for the body.

In the East, Ibn Sina studies the age characteristics of mental processes, the process of visual perception and its comprehension. The soul is mortal and dies with the body.

In the Middle Ages in Europe, under the influence of the church, the deification of the soul is observed. The study of mental processes is permitted only to theologians. The teachings of Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) - Thomism - the theological interpretation of the teachings of Aristotle, are developing. Theological psychology includes in the work of the soul the act of cognition (sensation and perception) of an object or phenomenon, awareness and cognition of oneself.

In the Renaissance, there is a return to the teachings of Aristotle about the soul as the driving force of behavior.

XNUMXth century - a new era in the development of psychological knowledge from general philosophical, speculative positions. R. Descartes (1596-1650) lays the foundations for the deterministic concept of behavior, separates the concepts of soul and body, and introduces the concept of a reflex as a motor response to irritation. Ideas according to Descartes are innate.

B. Spinoza (1632-1677) unites soul and body. Soul and body are determined by the same material causes. Man is an integral bodily and spiritual being.

G. Leibniz (1646-1716) introduces the concept of the unconscious part of the psyche. The world consists of an innumerable multitude of monads (from the Greek "monos" - one). Each of them is "psychic" and endowed with the ability to perceive everything that happens in the universe.

Hobbes (1588-1679) believed that mental phenomena also obey the laws of mechanics. The impact of material things on the body causes sensations, from which, according to the law of inertia, representations (traces of sensations) arise, forming chains of thoughts, which later J. Locke (1632-1704) will call an association. J. Locke believed that knowledge comes from experience, that is, the psyche is formed in the process of life, and ideas have an acquired character.

В XNUMXth century X. Wolf introduces the concept of "empirical psychology" as a direction in psychological science based on observation and experience. The soul, according to Wolf, is a blank slate, which, under the influence of sensory impressions, is filled with simple ideas, and those in the process of thinking form complex ideas.

The founder of associative psychology and the theory of reflex is D. Hartley (1705-1757). According to Gartley, the structure of the psyche consists of a large circle (from the sense organs through the brain to the muscles - a reflex arc) and a small circle located in the white matter of the brain and which is the basis of mental life, the processes of cognition and learning. The association occurs when an external influence causes the vibration of the sense organs and the brain, and the brain, in turn, stimulates the work of certain muscles, causing their contractions and body movements. Vibration, disappearing in a large circle, leaves traces in a small one. This is how memory happens.

13. The formation of psychology as a science

Early XIX century there is a flourishing of physiological psychology. The reflex scheme of Descartes is confirmed, the dependence of the behavior of the organism in the external environment on the bodily substrate, and not on consciousness (or soul), as a special incorporeal entity, is proved, the sense organs are being studied.

Johannes Müller (1801-1858) shows the causal dependence of sensations on an external stimulus and the properties of the nerve substrate.

P. Flourance (1794-1867) proves that the basic mental processes (perception, intellect, will) are the product of the brain as an integral organ. It determines the functions of the cerebellum (coordination of movements), the quadrigemina (participates in the process of visual perception), the spinal cord (conduction of excitation along the nerves).

The ideas of associationism are continued in the works of J. Mill (1773-1836). He considers consciousness to be a mental machine, the work of which is carried out strictly according to the laws of association. Experience is obtained through sensations, forming first simple and then complex ideas. His son D. S. Mill (1806-1873) founded the direction, which was called psychologism. All sciences, in his opinion, are subject to the action of psychological laws. Association is the key to all human phenomena and problems.

A. Bain puts forward the theory of trial and error, according to which between the "purely" reflex and "purely" voluntary there is a wide range of actions, thanks to which, gradually, step by step, sometimes at a high price, the desired goal is achieved. This concept concerns both movement and mental processes.

Evolutionary psychology is beginning. G. Spencer (1820-1903) believes that the psyche is a mechanism for adapting to the environment in the process of evolution. He refers to particular forms of adaptation: reflex, instinct, skill, realized in behavior, and sensations, memory, will, mind that exist in consciousness.

I.F. Herbart (1776-1841) proponent of an associative psychology based on experience. The subject of psychology is the facts and phenomena of consciousness.

Methods: self-observation, observation, analysis of activity products, mathematical methods.

Herbart considered representation, that is, complex images of perception that arise under the influence of objects that exist outside, to be an element of mental life. They have qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Quantitative characteristics include the power of representation, the indicator of which is its clarity. Herbart's psychology consisted of "statics of the spirit" (measurement data of representations during the period of rest) and "dynamics of the spirit" (conditions for the movement of representations in consciousness). Speaking about the association of ideas, Herbart came to the conclusion that ideas are not passive elements in the human soul, but have their own charge, activity, which determines their position in the mental sphere.

In the middle XIX century psychology stands out as an independent science. Special scientific research institutions were created: psychological laboratories and institutes, departments, experimental psychology appeared.

W. Wundt (1832-1920), creates the first psychological laboratory. He believes that in the field of consciousness there is a special mental causality that is subject to scientific objective research.

Ebbinghaus is engaged in the experimental study of mnemonic processes, more complex than sensory ones. For the first time, through experiments and quantitative analysis, he discovered the actual psychological laws that act independently of consciousness, objectively, which called into question the equality of the psyche and consciousness, which until then had been taken as an axiom.

14. History of the development of domestic psychology

The formation of domestic psychology began in the middle XIX V. The founder of Russian scientific psychology is I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905). He adhered to the physiological interpretation of psychological processes. Like reflexes, they originate in an external influence, continue with central nervous activity and end with a response activity - movement, deed, speech. However, consciousness, in his opinion, is not a reflex and therefore is devoid of the causality that is inherent in the corporeal world. Sechenov underestimated the specificity of psychic reality in comparison with its physiological basis, did not take into account the role of cultural and historical factors in the formation and development of the human psyche.

At the end of XIX in. there is a development of personality psychology in the concept of K.D. Kavelin. The idea of the self-worth of the individual, his freedom and independence from the pressure of society is brought to the fore.

A.A. Potebnya studies the psychology of peoples, analyzing the evolution of mental structures. He creates a cultural-historical psychology that draws information about the intellectual structure of the individual from objective data on the progress of the national language as an organ that forms thought.

Under the leadership of G.I. Chelpanov in 1912, the first institute of psychology was opened in Russia. The first university psychological schools develop.

MM. Troitsky develops the ideas of associative psychology, proving that all mental processes are formed due to various laws of associations: contiguity, similarity, contrast. He sought to distinguish between the areas of knowledge and faith.

N.N. Lange develops a natural-science direction in psychology, studies objective methods for studying consciousness, the act of attention, and creates a motor theory of attention. Studying reflexes, he replaces the concept of "arc" with - "ring", distinguishes a number of stages in mental evolution, correlating them with the changes undergone by the nervous system.

The experimental direction is successfully developing. The first experimental psychology laboratories are opening at the Universities of Moscow and Novorossiysk.

I.P. Pavlov creates the doctrine of conditioned reflex activity, according to which, in order to generate a conditioned reflex, not only a stimulus perceived by the senses (in the form of sound, smell, etc.) is needed, but also a reinforcement of the correct reaction to it. The conditioned reflex arises on the basis of the unconditioned. refex. The development of conditioned reflexes is the basis of learning, gaining experience. Knowing the set of conditions on which the creation of a conditioned reflex depends, it is possible to prescribe a program of behavior.

V.M. Bekhterev develops a psychology of behavior based on an experimental study of the reflex nature of the human psyche. He develops reflexological methods for studying infants and studies the patterns of mental development of young children.

A.A. Ukhtomsky develops the concept of the dominant, as the dominant focus of excitation, which suppresses the activity of other centers. This concept made it possible to interpret the behavior of an organism in the unity of its physiological and psychological manifestations.

In the 20s - 50s. K.N.Kornilov develops the doctrine of the reactions of the body - reactology. He considers reaction to be the basic element of the psyche.

In the same years, the psychology of social life developed by G.G. Shpet. He analyzes the socio-historical reasons for the development of the human psyche, including his thinking and speech, his individual and national mental characteristics.

L.S. Vygodsky studies the development of children and those with anomalies and becomes the founder of defectology.

15. The concept of activity

Activity - it is a kind of organized and socially determined human activity aimed at cognition and creative transformation of the surrounding world, including oneself and the conditions of one's existence.

Animals also have activity, but unlike animals, whose activity is consumer-based, not producing or creating anything new compared to what is given by nature, human activity is productive, creative, constructive.

Human activity is objective, that is, it is associated with objects of material and spiritual culture, which are used by him as tools, as means of his own development, or as objects for satisfying needs. Animals perceive human tools and means of satisfying needs as well as ordinary natural objects, without regard for their cultural and spiritual significance.

In the process of activity, a person transforms himself, develops his abilities, needs, living conditions. During the activity of animals, changes in themselves or in the external conditions of life are much less pronounced.

Activity is the result of the biological evolution of living beings, while human activity in its various forms and means is a product of history.

The activity of animals is genotypically determined and develops as the natural anatomical and physiological maturation of the organism. A newborn child initially does not have objective activity, it is formed in the process of education and training, in parallel with the development of internal, neurophysiological and psychological structures that control the external side of practical activity.

Activity is closely related to behavior, but differs from this concept by activity, focus on creating a certain product. It is organized and systematic.

The main characteristics of the activity:

1) motive - this is what stimulates the activity, for the sake of which it is carried out. The motive is usually a specific need, which is satisfied in the course and with the help of this activity. Motives can be:

a) organic - aimed at meeting the natural needs of the body (production of food, clothing, etc.);

b) functional - aimed at meeting the need for activity (games and sports);

c) material - aimed at creating household items, various things and tools, directly in the form of products that serve natural needs;

d) social - aimed at satisfying the need for recognition, respect from the people around, in obtaining social status;

e) spiritual - they underlie those activities that are associated with self-improvement of a person.

2) the purpose of the activity is what a person strives for:

a) a real physical object created by a person,

b) certain knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the course of activities,

c) creative result (thought, idea, theory), etc.

3) the subject of activity is what a person directly deals with (information, knowledge, skills, created material product).

4) the structure of activities includes:

a) psychophysiological functions;

b) operations;

c) actions;

d) special activities.

5) means of activity are the tools that a person uses when performing certain actions and operations. The development of the means of activity leads to its improvement, as a result of which the activity becomes more productive and of high quality.

16. Activity theory

The theory of activity is associated with the name of L.S. Vygodsky, S.L. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria and other domestic psychologists. The main postulate of this theory is the postulate that "being, human activity determine his consciousness."

Human activity consists of several non-equilibrium levels:

1) level of psychophysiological functions - lowest level. Psychophysiological functions - physiological provision of mental processes of activity. Since a person is a biosocial being, the course of mental processes is inseparable from the processes of the physiological level, which provide the possibility of the implementation of mental processes. A feature of psychophysiological functions is that they are given to a person "from nature". Psychophysiological functions include the ability to sense (sensory functions), to form and fix traces of past influences (mnemonic functions), motor abilities (motor functions), etc. A special role is played by motor functions, which are divided into innate (based on unconditioned reflexes ) and acquired (based on conditioned reflexes);

2) level of operations - the level of automatic actions and skills. Operations - a way to perform an action. Different operations can be used to achieve the same goal under different (internal and external) conditions. A goal given under certain conditions is called a task in activity theory. The peculiarity of operations is their low awareness. Operations are of two types:

a) operations that arose through adaptation and adaptation to the conditions of habitat and activity; they are practically not realized;

b) conscious actions that have become skills due to automation and moved to the area of unconscious processes; they are on the verge of consciousness;

3) action level - the core of the hierarchical construction. Action - the main unit of analysis of activity - a process aimed at fulfilling the goal, implemented in the external and internal plan. At the same time, the goal is an image that a person, performing a certain activity, constantly keeps in his mind. Thus, action is a conscious manifestation of a person's activity, with the exception of those cases when, for certain reasons or circumstances, the adequacy of the mental regulation of behavior is violated in a person, for example, in case of illness or in a state of passion;

4) level of special activities (highest level) - a set of actions, which are caused by one motive. At this level, activity unfolds in its own personal problems, actualizing the problems of individual style and personal meaning. Personal meaning is understood as the experience of the subjective significance of an object, action or event that is in the field of action of the leading motive. With a high intensity of the leading motive, the range of objects that acquire personal meaning increases. In some cases, very strong motives can give meaning to a person's entire life. With the loss of this motive, life and activity lose their meaning.

Fundamental principles of the psychological theory of activity:

1) The principle of "blurring" the circle of consciousness: consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must manifest itself in activity;

2) The principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior: behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness;

3) The principle of activity: activity is an active, purposeful process;

4) The principle of objective human activity and the principle of its social conditionality: human actions are objective; their goals are social in nature.

17. Educational activities, training and education

Learning activities - it is a specific human activity, the immediate goal of which is the very development of certain information, actions, forms of behavior.

Educational activities include the development of:

1) Knowledge - information about the significant properties of the world, necessary for the successful organization of certain types of theoretical or practical activities;

2) skills - techniques and operations that make up all types of activities;

3) skills - ways to use the specified information for the correct selection and control of techniques and operations in accordance with the conditions of the task and the goal.

Educational activity begins to develop only by the age of six or seven, when the child acquires the ability to regulate his actions with a conscious ideal goal. Its formation takes place on the basis of previous types of activity: games, speech, practical behavior, etc. The child's transition from play to learning activity occurs through the creation of conscious motives for acquiring certain knowledge, skills and abilities. An important role in this process is played by the social influence on the child of adults who organize his activities and behavior and direct them into the framework of social practice.

The active process of directing the activity and behavior of the child to master the social experience of mankind is called learning.

The influence of this process on the development of the child's personality is called education.

The main means of training and education are showing and explaining, rewarding and punishing, setting goals and making demands, checking and correcting.

Pedagogy deals with the study of the processes of education and upbringing.

In the process of learning activities at school, a child, under the guidance of a teacher, joins the achievements of human culture, assimilates the knowledge and skills accumulated by previous generations, acquires the ability to act in accordance with the requirements of developed forms of social consciousness (science, art, morality, law). In the process of playing, communicating with adults and peers, the assimilation of human experience also takes place, however, in educational activities, it acquires the character of scientific concepts and theoretical knowledge. As a result of educational activity, the child develops theoretical consciousness, thinking and abilities (for reflection, analysis, planning, differentiation).

Thanks to educational activity, the child begins to evaluate his actions, himself as a person, that is, educational activity draws the child's inner attention to himself.

Educational activity forms in a person the ability to manage his mental processes, the ability to choose, organize and direct his actions and operations, skills and experience in accordance with the task being solved, which contributes to preparing a person for work.

Components of learning activities:

1) learning task - the goal of learning realized by the child, what he must master;

2) learning activities - actions, as a result of which a representation or a preliminary image of the assimilated action is formed and the initial reproduction of the sample is performed;

3) control actions - comparison of the reproduced action with the ideal image. Allocate:

a) planning control - before the start of work;

b) operational - during work;

c) by result - by the final result;

4) evaluation action the degree of assimilation of the changes that have occurred in the subject.

It is characteristic of educational activity that its result is a change in the student himself, his development, and not some material product.

18. Leading activity and psychological age

Leading activity - this is an activity that causes major changes in the mental processes and psychological characteristics of the child's personality at a certain stage of his development. The development of all mental processes occurs in the process of the child's activity. However, activities as the child grows up undergo certain qualitative changes. The transition to a new level of development is accompanied by the emergence of a new type of activity that contributes to the further development of the child. At the same time, the previous activity does not disappear, but loses its decisive role in development. For example, the game is the leading activity of preschoolers, but both schoolchildren and adults play. A change in leading activity indicates a transition from one age stage to another; in this case, the leading attitude of the child to reality also changes.

The leading activity in infancy is communication with adults, expressed in direct emotional contact, due to which the child develops a need to communicate with other people.

In early childhood, the leading activity is business practical cooperation with an adultcarried out by means of objects and actions with them. In the process of mastering object-tool operations, the child's practical intellect is formed. Joint subject activity contributes to the development of speech, which is used mainly to establish cooperation with an adult.

Game is the leading activity in preschool age. Through the game, the child learns the world around him, learns to influence it. Thanks to the game, the child learns the practical separation of the meaning of the word from the appearance of the thing and the connection of this meaning with the actions on the thing, its function in human practice. Gradually, words are freed from direct connection with things, and the meaning of the word is increasingly represented by external action, and then by the idea of action. The child begins to replace real actions with things with speech actions.

Gradually, the child begins to oppose his own actions to those of others, and the concept of his own "I" stands out. The game is directly related to the formation of the need-motivational sphere of the child. The child learns to desire by correlating his desire with an idea, with a role - role-playing games arise that reproduce certain types of practical non-play activities and thereby meet the child's need to take part in the life and activities of adults.

A qualitative change in games in the process of a child's development also speaks of the child's transition to a new level of development. So, at the beginning, the child masters the object game, which is replaced by role-playing games, games with rules, and constructive games. If in an object game the main thing is the possession of an object and action with it, then in a role-playing game the main thing is the person behind the object.

Play at preschool age is a universal form of development. The game develops not only cognitive processes, speech, communication, behavior, but also the personality of the child. It creates a zone of proximal development, serves as the basis for the formation of future educational activities.

At primary school age, the leading activity is educational, the child learns discipline, control of his behavior. In adolescence, communication with peers comes to the fore, replaced by communication with adults in the space of educational activities in senior school and after school age. With the admission to work, the main activity becomes labor activity.

19. The concept of the psyche and its structure

The concept of "psyche" originated in ancient Greece. Translated from Greek, "psyche" means "soul". In modern psychology under the psyche It is customary to understand the ability of the brain to receive information about the surrounding reality, create an image of the objective world and regulate its own behavior and activities on this basis.

The psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations. Usually there are three large groups of mental phenomena that make up the structure of the psyche:

1) mental processes - a systematic series of actions fixed by consciousness. The end of one mental process is closely connected with the beginning of a new one. Hence the continuity of mental activity in the waking state of a person. In mental processes, cognitive, emotional and volitional processes are distinguished. Cognitive processes include sensation, perception, memory, thinking, imagination, with the help of which knowledge of the surrounding world and oneself is possible. Sensations and perceptions are the primary mental processes on the basis of which the development of memory, thinking, etc. takes place. Attention occupies a special place among cognitive processes, it is present in all processes and allows you to concentrate, focus on something.

Feelings, emotions are mental processes that reflect a person's experience of his attitude to the phenomena of the surrounding world, the events of his inner life, determine how important they are for him, for his life, i.e. establish the personal significance of this or that event.

Conscious regulation of behavior, the ability to act according to a consciously set goal, an accepted intention is provided by will, arbitrariness.

Memory and thinking are the highest mental processes, thanks to which conscious activity becomes possible.

Mental processes are characterized by dynamism, plasticity, variability and continuity of mental activity;

2) mental states - various types of integrated reflection by the subject of internal or external stimuli without their clear awareness. Mental states include: cheerfulness, fatigue, apathy, depression, euphoria, alienation, loss of a sense of reality, a feeling of familiarity with what is perceived, boredom, distraction, stress, etc. Mental states determine the specifics of the course of mental processes, especially in responsible and extreme situations . They are closely related to the individual characteristics of a person. Mental states reflect the impact on a person of certain events of external and internal life. However, a person, as a rule, is aware only of this state itself, and what caused it, either does not represent at all, or does not represent clearly;

3) mental properties - these are stable and essential features that distinguish a person or group of people.

Distinguish:

1) individual properties (temperament, biogenic needs, inclinations, etc.);

2) subjective properties (consciousness, emotions, abilities, etc.);

3) personal properties (social status and roles, value orientations, etc.);

4) properties of a person as an individual (character, self-control, character, etc.).

Mental processes, mental states and mental properties are interconnected and do not exist separately from each other. They interact and can pass into each other.

Based on this interaction, human activity is possible as a common property of living organisms.

Consciously regulated activity aimed at the knowledge and transformation of the external world and the person himself is called activity.

20. Brain and psyche

There are central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral (all other nervous structures) nervous system. The brain is located in the cranial cavity and is the highest division of the central nervous system. It contains the brain stem, cerebrum, cerebellum. The brain stem consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain and diencephalon. The large brain consists of two hemispheres - the right and left, which are connected to each other by the corpus callosum. The outer part of the cerebrum is covered with a cloak called the cerebral cortex. It is the material substrate of higher nervous activity, the main regulator of all vital functions of the organism. The diencephalon consists of the thalamus and hypothalamus. Almost all sensory pathways pass through the thalamus, which here have switches on the way to the corresponding parts of the brain. The hypothalamus is an endocrine gland and maintains the constancy of the internal environment of the body.

The structural and functional unit of the nervous system is a neuron, consisting of a body (which is an accumulation of cytoplasm, in which the nucleus is located - a carrier of genetic information, mitochondria, and other organelles) and processes that are outgrowths of the cytoplasm and perform the functions of pathways. Distinguish between short tree-branching processes, constantly thinning and ending in the surrounding tissues, which are called dendrites and large processes - axons. Axons end in a synapse, with the help of which they functionally interact with the innervated structures.

Neurons are part of the reflex arc. According to their functional significance, they distinguish three types of neurons:

1) receptor (sensitive, afferent) neurons have sensitive nerve endings that are able to perceive irritation from the external environment;

2) effector (efferent) neurons - transmit the first signal to the working body;

3) associative (intercalary, central), neurons that are intermediate in the reflex arc, transmit information from sensory neurons to effector ones.

The processes occurring in the brain are complex biochemical reactions of a bioelectric nature.

The brain is the material substratum of the human psyche. When brain function is impaired, certain mental disorders are observed.

There are two main points of view on the relationship between the brain and the psyche.

The theory of localizationism believes that each, even the most elementary mental function, each mental property or state of a person is uniquely associated with the work of a limited area of the brain, and all mental phenomena can be located on the surface and in the deep structures of the brain in a very specific place.

When studying the functional asymmetry of the hemispheres, it was found that the left and right hemispheres work relatively autonomously. Moreover, the left hemisphere is associated with analytical functions, while the right hemisphere has an ear for music, easily perceives spatial relationships, and is able to recognize the whole in parts.

Theory of functionalism claims that the work of the entire brain as a whole, of all its structures, is practically connected with each mental phenomenon. The brain is an integral functional organ - an in vivo forming system of mutual connections between individual parts of the brain, which ensures the functioning of the corresponding property, process or mental state. Various parts of such a system can be interchanged. This is confirmed by the data that in each of the hemispheres it is possible to form such skills, the performance of which is not inherent in it.

21. Mind and activity

The unity of all aspects of a person's mental life serves as the basis for his activity, the most important form of which is activity. The concept of the psyche is closely interconnected with the concept of activity in its very definition as the ability of the brain to receive information about the surrounding reality, create an image of the objective world and regulate its own behavior and activity on this basis.

One of the components of the psyche are mental processes (perception, attention, imagination, memory, thinking, speech, etc.), the development and functioning of which directly depends on activity. On the other hand, mental processes act as the most important components of any human activity necessary to meet human needs, communication, play, learning and work. A person must perceive the world, pay attention to certain moments or components of activity, imagine what he needs to do, remember, think, and express judgments. Without the participation of mental processes, human activity is impossible.

Mental processes not only participate in activity, but also develop in it and themselves represent special types of activity.

So, in the activity the main types of perception are formed: the perception of depth, direction and speed of movement, time and space, which in the process of practical activity acquires its most important human qualities.

Closely connected with activity is imagination, since it is impossible to imagine or imagine something that has never been encountered in activity. Even the most detached from reality images of the imagination always have a foundation already encountered in activity.

The process of memorization is better carried out in activity, and memorization itself is a special kind of mnemonic activity, which contains actions and operations aimed at preparing the material for better memorization. The process of recall also involves the performance of certain actions aimed at remembering the material.

The concept of thinking in a number of its forms is identical to practical activity (the so-called "manual" or practical thinking). In other cases, the active moment appears in it in the form of internal, mental actions and operations.

Closely related to the activity and speech, which is a special kind of activity - "speech activity".

In activity, another component of the psyche is formed - mental properties, which include the main properties of the personality, such as temperament, character, abilities.

So, temperament is able to influence the dynamics of activity, changing its productivity. In this regard, in the preparation of some specialists, psychological testing is carried out to determine the type and temperament of a person and his professional suitability. Each type of temperament is characterized by individual methods of work: the alternation of phases of work and rest, the development of a certain pace, etc.

The formation of character occurs in close connection with various types of human activity. At preschool age, play activity is of the greatest importance in the development of character, at school - educational, in an adult - labor.

Activity has a great influence on human abilities, stimulating the development of some and inhibiting others. At the same time, the presence of abilities stimulates a person to engage in one or another type of activity.

That. for the work of the psyche, active human activity is necessary, which is also the most important condition for its development.

22. The concept of consciousness

From a materialistic point of view Consciousness is the highest level of human reflection of reality.

From idealistic positions consciousness is actually the human form of the mental principle of being.

Consciousness is a collection of knowledge about the world around us. Its structure includes the most important cognitive processes, with the help of which a person constantly enriches his knowledge (sensations and perceptions, memory, imagination and thinking).

Functions of consciousness:

1) mental construction of actions;

2) anticipation of the consequences of their actions;

3) control and management of the behavior of the individual;

4) the ability to be aware of what is happening both in the surrounding world and in one's own spiritual world.

Characteristics of consciousness:

1) the activity of consciousness is manifested in the differentiation of mental images according to the degree of their significance for subjects; consciousness contains the sources of its own movement, which are reproduced in the course of the movement itself;

2) intentionality - focus on an object or object;

3) the ability to reflect, i.e. the readiness of consciousness to cognize other mental phenomena and oneself, thanks to which a person feels like a cognizing subject and is able to mentally represent the existing and imaginary reality, control his own mental and behavioral states, manage them, is able to see and perceive in the form of images the surrounding reality. Realizing the acquired knowledge, a person can formulate it in words, concepts, various other symbols, transfer it to another person and future generations of people, store, reproduce, work with knowledge as with a special object;

4) periodic states of consciousness:

a) wakefulness - a functional periodic state of consciousness, which is characterized by the activity of the whole organism;

b) sleep - a functional periodic state of consciousness, which is characterized by disconnection from the sensory influences of the outside world;

5) the ability to communicate - the transfer of information conscious by a person to other people using language and other sign systems;

6) mental representation and imagination of reality;

7) the presence of intellectual schemes - certain mental structures, in accordance with which a person perceives, processes and stores information about the world around him and about himself (for example, rules, concepts, logical operations used by people to bring their information into a certain order, including selection, classification of information, assigning it to a particular category). Thanks to this characteristic of consciousness, abstraction is possible.

One of the levels of consciousness is self-consciousness. At this level, a person realizes, evaluates his knowledge, feelings, needs, motives of behavior and activity.

The structure of self-consciousness:

1) directly-sense level - the level of the simplest self-identification of a person (self-awareness, self-experience of psychosomatic processes in the body and one's own desires, experiences);

2) value-shaped, personal level - the level of awareness of oneself as an active principle (self-experience, self-actualization, identification and maintenance of the self-identity of one's "I");

3) reflective, intellectual-analytical level - the level of awareness by the individual of the content of his own thought processes (introspection, self-understanding, introspection, self-reflection);

4) purposeful-active level - the level due to which regulative-behavioral and motivational functions are performed through numerous forms of self-control, self-organization, self-regulation, etc.

23. Consciousness and activity

One of the basic principles of psychology is principle of unity of consciousness and activity, formulated by S.L. Rubinstein. According to this principle, consciousness is not simply "manifested and formed" in activity as a separate reality - it is "embedded" in activity and inseparable from it. A person, moved by some attraction, will act differently when he is aware of the attraction to which the action is directed than he acted while he was not aware of it. The fact of awareness of one's activity changes the conditions of its course, its course and character. Activity ceases to be a simple set of responses to external environmental stimuli, it begins to be regulated in a different way.

The awareness or unconsciousness of this or that action depends on the relations that develop in the course of the activity: the action is realized when the partial result that it achieves turns into the direct goal of the subject, and ceases to be realized when the goal is transferred further and the previous action turns into only a way to carry it out. another action directed towards a more general goal. Thus, as the smaller particular tasks acquire relative independence, the actions aimed at them are recognized; as they enter into broader general tasks, the actions directed at them are switched off from consciousness, pass into the subconscious. Consciousness turns on and off depending on the relationships - between tasks and methods of their implementation - that are formed in the very process of activity. Consciousness is not an external force that controls human activity from the outside, but a prerequisite and at the same time the result of activity.

Different levels and types of consciousness mean at the same time different levels or types of behavior (reaction, conscious action, deed). A conscious action differs from an unconscious one in its structure, attitude to the situation in which it is performed, and its course. A conscious action differs from a reaction in a different relation to the object: for the reaction, the object is only a stimulus, i.e., an external cause or impetus that causes it, and action is a conscious act of activity that is directed at the object. As objective consciousness is formed, the reaction is transformed into a conscious action. An action becomes an act as the relationship of this action to the acting subject, to oneself and to other people is realized, and as the consciousness regulates this action.

At various stages of the development of consciousness, there is a change in the internal nature of the action or acts of behavior, which entails a change in the psychological patterns of their external objective course. In this regard, the structure of consciousness can be determined by the external, objective course of action.

Any experience of the subject is always and inevitably an experience of something and knowledge of something. The internal nature of any experience is determined indirectly through its relation to the external, objective world. Experience is not possible without its correlation with the object to which it is directed. However, the external side of the act does not define it unambiguously. The nature of a human act is determined by the relation of a person to a person and the world around him, which constitutes his inner content, expressed in his motives and goals.

The unity of consciousness and activity or behavior is based on the unity of consciousness and reality or being. The same relation to the object determines both consciousness and behavior, one in the ideal, the other in the material plane.

24. Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychology is one of the most popular and rapidly developing scientific areas of foreign psychology, which was formed in the 60s. the last century. This direction got its name from the Latin word cognition - knowledge, knowledge. The emergence of cognitive psychology is associated At first, with insufficient attention paid by representatives of other areas to cognitive processes, and Secondly, with the rapid development of computer technology and cybernetics, as a science of the general laws of the process of control and transmission of information.

Initially, the main task of cognitive psychology was to study the transformation of sensory information from the moment a stimulus hits the receptor surfaces to the receipt of a response. The researchers proceeded from the analogy between the processes of information processing in humans and in a computing device. In this regard, numerous structural components (blocks) of cognitive and executive processes were identified, including short-term memory and long-term memory.

Representatives of cognitive psychology believe that information is processed in stages, and at each stage, the stage of processing, it is for a certain time and is presented in various forms. Information processing is carried out with the help of various regulatory processes (pattern recognition, attention, repetition of information, etc.). The schemes of information processing models proposed by cognitivists are presented in the form of rectangular blocks with inscriptions inside them, which are usually connected by arrows showing the direction of the "flow" of information. Such block diagrams were initially very simple, but under the influence of ever new experimental results, they became so complicated that they forced the authors of the models to refuse to represent the information processing process in the form of "linear chains" of blocks rigidly connected to each other.

This line of research, faced with serious difficulties due to the increase in the number of structural models of particular mental processes, led to an understanding of cognitive psychology as a direction whose task is to prove the decisive role of knowledge in the behavior of the subject.

Cognitive psychology covers almost all cognitive processes (from sensations to perception, pattern recognition, memory, concept formation, thinking, imagination) by studying how people receive information about the world, how this information is represented by a person, how it is stored in memory and converted into knowledge , and how this knowledge affects our attention and behavior.

The main areas of cognitive psychology are also research on the problems of the psychology of the development of cognitive structures, on the psychology of language and speech, on the development of cognitive theories of human and artificial intelligence. Representatives of cognitive psychology obtained a lot of important data that make the process of cognition as a whole more understandable, and many patterns of individual cognitive processes were established.

The disadvantages of this direction include the fact that cognitivists often do not take into account the role of emotions, intentions and needs in the development of cognitive processes. Research carried out within the framework of cognitive psychology identifies the human brain with a machine, thereby simplifying the complex, diverse inner world of a person, considering it as relatively simplified schemes and models. The conscious activity of the subject, the connection between cognitive processes and activity is also ignored. The artificiality of the laboratory situations of the study is also noted.

25. The concept of sensations

The initial simplest mental processes include sensory (sensation) and perceptual (perception) processes. Being the simplest form of cognitive activity, they underlie the construction of a holistic image and behavior.

Feeling - it is a mental process of reflection of individual, features and properties of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the senses. Feelings are at the heart of the process of cognition.

Sensation is the only channel connecting the external world and consciousness. Every second, the sense organs receive, select, accumulate information about the state of the external and internal environment: about sounds, colors, smells, size, temperature, and transmit it to the brain in the form of sensations.

The result of this is an adequate reflection of the surrounding world and the state of the organism itself. On the basis of the information received, nerve impulses are formed in the brain, which are sent to the organs of respiration, digestion, urination, muscles and glands.

Feelings are an active process. They arise as a result of the conversion of the specific energy of the stimulus that is currently acting on the receptor into the energy of nerve impulses.

Sensation is a component of activity and is associated with movements.

Feelings are innate reflex nature. The sensation is based on a nervous process that occurs when a stimulus acts on the corresponding analyzer.

The analyzer includes:

1) the peripheral section, represented by the receptor, transforms incoming information into nerve impulses;

2) afferent nerves - connect the peripheral to the central;

3) subcortical sections - primary processing of nerve impulses coming from peripheral sections;

4) cortical sections - the final processing of nerve impulses;

5) efferent (centrifugal) nerves - connect the central section with the peripheral.

The cortical section of the analyzer consists of the central part (nucleus), where the main mass of nerve cells is located, and the periphery - scattered cellular elements located in various parts of the cortex. The presence of scattered cellular elements ensures that most of the entire cerebral cortex participates in the process of sensation. Scattered elements carry out a rough analysis of the received information. Subtle analysis and synthesis takes place in the nucleus.

And the analyzer is an integral system that is part of the reflex arc. The composition of the reflex arc, in addition to the analyzer, includes an effector. Coordinated work of all departments of the analyzer is necessary for the emergence of a sensation. According to the feedback principle (Sechenov), the sense organ is alternately a receptor and an effector.

Sensation is characterized by a reflection of only individual and necessarily elementary, simplest properties of objects and phenomena of the material world (sensation of sound, light, warmth, sweetness, etc.). When reflecting the speed or distance of an object, one speaks of perception. The feeling is always somewhat vague and incomplete. Sensation involves the impact of the stimulus on the receptor during the presence of the corresponding image.

Sensation refers to innate mental processes and underlies sensory cognition. A newborn child is able to feel and react to light, sound, etc. In the real life of an adult, one cannot speak of the existence of sensations separately from other mental processes. Sensations are always permeated with more complex mental processes, properties and states: perception, thinking, speech, emotions, etc., that is, they are part of more complex forms of mental activity.

26. Types of sensations

According to the presence or absence of direct contact of the receptor with the stimulus, the following are distinguished:

1) distant reception - a sensation occurs without direct contact with the stimulus (vision, hearing, smell). Provides orientation in the environment;

2) contact reception - sensations arise after direct contact with the stimulus (taste, pain, tactile sensations). It performs mainly a signal-protective function.

According to the nature of the reflection and the location of the receptors, they distinguish:

1) exteroceptive sensations - reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment, arise from receptors located on the surface of the body (tactile, olfactory, visual, etc.);

2) interoceptive sensations - reflect the state of the internal organs, where the corresponding receptors are located (osmo-, value-, baroreceptors, etc.);

3) proprioceptive sensations - reflect the movement and position of the body in space, receptors are located in the muscles and ligaments (kinesthetic, kinesthetic receptors, etc.).

According to the analyzers in which sensations arise, they distinguish:

1) visual sensations - arise in the visual analyzer as a result of the action of light rays on the retina. In this case, irritation of the light-sensitive cells (rods and cones) located in the retina occurs;

2) auditory sensations - occur in the auditory analyzer, as a result of stimulation of hair cells by sound waves ranging from 16 to 20000 vibrations per second. There are three types of auditory sensations:

a) speech;

b) musical;

c) noise.

Auditory sensations reflect:

a) the pitch of sound, which depends on the frequency of vibration of sound waves;

b) the strength of sound - depends on the amplitude of their vibrations;

c) the duration of the sound - depends on the time of vibrations;

d) the timbre of sound - depends on the shape of the vibrations of sound waves;

e) the pace and rhythm of the sound - depends on the periodic change in the amplitude of the vibrations.

3) vibration sensations. This type of sensitivity is close in nature to the reflected physical phenomena to auditory sensations. It is also figuratively called "contact hearing". No specific vibration receptors have been found in humans. It is believed that all tissues of the body can reflect the vibrations of the external and internal environment. In humans, vibrational sensitivity is subordinated to auditory and visual;

4) olfactory sensations arise in the olfactory analyzer, reflect the smells of surrounding objects. Olfactory sensations arise as a result of irritation of the olfactory cells located in the upper part of the nasal cavity;

5) taste sensations arise when taste buds are irritated by substances of the tongue, pharynx, palate, dissolved in saliva or water. Taste buds distinguish between sensations of sweet, sour, salty, and bitter;

6) tactile sensations (sensations of touch) - arise as a result of contact irritation of tactile receptors located in the skin. Tactile sensations of the hand, together with muscular-articular sensitivity, form tactile sensations;

7) temperature sensations (sensations of cold and heat) - occur when temperature receptors are irritated;

8) pain sensations occur when the pain receptors located both in the skin and in the internal organs (kidneys, liver, etc.) are irritated. Painful sensations perform a protective and signaling function, notifying a person of trouble in his body;

9) kinesthetic sensations are sensations of movement and position of body parts in space. They arise in the motor analyzer and contribute to the coordination and control of body movements;

10) organic sensations - arise in the receptors of the corresponding internal organs (esophagus, heart, etc.).

27. Properties and pathophysiological patterns of sensations

Feel properties:

1) quality is the main feature of a given sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within a given type. Auditory sensations differ in pitch, timbre, loudness; visual - by brightness, contrast, color tone, etc.;

2) the intensity of sensation is its quantitative characteristic and is determined by the strength of the acting stimulus and the functional state of the receptor;

3) duration - a temporal characteristic of sensation, determined by the time of action of the stimulus, its intensity and the functional state of the sense organ. The sensation does not arise immediately when the stimulus acts on the sense organ, but after some time, which is called the latent (hidden) period of sensation. Each type of sensation has its own latent period (tactile sensations - 130 milliseconds, pain sensations - 370 milliseconds, taste sensations - 50 milliseconds). Sensations do not disappear immediately after the cessation of the stimulus, but after a certain time of aftereffect. This is due to the fatigue of the receptors and a decrease in their sensitivity, and therefore, they do not immediately catch the absence of the stimulus after the termination of its action;

4) the spatial localization of the stimulus is carried out by distant receptors. Spatial analysis gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space. Tactile, pain, taste sensations correlate with the part of the body that is affected by the stimulus. At the same time, the localization of pain sensations is diffuse and less accurate than tactile ones.

Pathophysiological patterns of sensations:

1) sensitivity - this is the occurrence of sensation to minimal irritation. The lower absolute threshold of sensitivity is the minimum strength of the stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation. Irritants of lesser strength, not capable of causing a sensation, are called subthreshold. The lower threshold of sensation determines the level of absolute sensitivity of this analyzer. The lower the threshold of sensation, the higher the sensitivity. Animals of different species have a different lower threshold of sensitivity of certain analyzers. So dolphins, unlike humans, are able to sense ultrasonic signals, and dogs - faint smells at a great distance;

2) discrimination of stimuli - the ability to distinguish changes in the intensity of the stimulus. The difference threshold or difference threshold is the minimum difference between two stimuli that causes a barely noticeable difference in sensations. The difference threshold is characterized by a relative value that is constant for a given analyzer. The larger the main stimulus, the higher the differential threshold, the lower the differential sensitivity. In addition to intensity, the concept of difference sensitivity is applicable to the discrimination of shapes, sizes, etc.;

3) adaptation - a change in the sensitivity of the sense organs under the influence of the stimulus. When moving from strong to weak stimuli, sensitivity increases, from weak to strong, it decreases. There are the following types of adaptation:

a) negative adaptation, manifested by the complete disappearance of sensation in the process of prolonged action of the stimulus (disappearance of olfactory sensations in an atmosphere with an unpleasant odor) or dulling of sensation under the influence of a strong stimulus (bright light dulls sensitivity to light - the effect of temporary blindness);

b) positive adaptation - an increase in sensitivity under the influence of a weak stimulus (adaptation to darkness causes an increase in sensitivity to light).

28. Development of sensations

The development of sensations begins immediately after the birth of the child. Gradually, the child begins to respond to stimuli of all kinds. The early stage of child development is characterized by differences in the degree of maturity of individual feelings. There are also differences in the stages of their development.

The most developed by the time of the birth of a child is skin sensitivity. The most sensitive areas in a newborn are the lips and oral mucosa. When the corner of the mouth is irritated, the child turns his head towards the stimulus, which is associated with the presence of an unconditioned reflex in him. A newborn baby can feel differences in temperature, touch, pain.

Olfactory sensitivity is developed in a newborn so well that he is able to determine by the smell of mother's milk whether the mother is in the room or not. The olfactory senses that are not related to nutrition are much less developed in young children. They develop in most children only by the age of six or seven.

Sufficiently well developed by the time of birth is taste sensitivity. Thus, the child reacts with a negative emotional reaction to the introduction of a solution of quinine into the mouth and drinks the glucose solution with pleasure. Soon after birth, the baby is already able to distinguish mother's milk from water.

By the time of birth, vision and hearing are less mature, which is associated with the complexity of their structure and organization of functioning. The ear canal of a newborn in the first days after birth is filled with amniotic fluid, which resolves only after a few days, and therefore the child does not respond to sounds, even very loud ones. The reaction to sounds begins to appear only at the end of the first - beginning of the second week of life. Sensitivity to sounds increases gradually. The child, in response to the sound, reacts with general motor activity: throws up his arms, moves his legs, makes a loud cry. The direction of the sound the child begins to perceive only after two or three months, which is manifested in the turn of the head towards the source of the sound.

In the second month, the child responds well to the intonation of the voice: the gentle tone has a calming effect on him. Discrimination of speech sounds occurs by the end of the first year of life.

The most difficult thing is the development of vision. At birth, the child has a low sensitivity to light, which increases markedly in the first days of life. The child reacts to light with various motor reactions. The movements of the eyeballs of a newborn child are not coordinated, and therefore one eye can look in one direction, the other in the other, nystagmus may also be noted - trembling of the eyeballs. Only by the end of the second month of life, the child begins to control the movement of the eyes. At the third month, the child can already distinguish between objects and faces. The process of distinguishing colors begins only in the fifth month.

Unlike absolute sensitivity, which develops already in the first year of life, the ability to distinguish sensations develops much more slowly. This ability develops especially strongly during the school years.

The level of development of sensations in different people is not the same. This is largely due to the genetic characteristics of a person. The development of sensations occurs in connection with practical activities: gaming, educational, labor. With the loss of one type of sensitivity, as a compensation, a person begins to develop more strongly others. Professional activity also contributes to the development of certain types of sensations (tasters have a developed sense of smell and taste, artists, watchmakers - vision). Feelings can also improve under the influence of special exercises: when playing music, drawing.

29. Investigation of sensations

The study of tactile sensations carried out in two stages with one subject.

At the first stage, the subject is blindfolded. 10 or 2 objects are placed alternately on the palm of the subject for 3 seconds and asked him, without making groping movements with his hand, to characterize the sensations. The sensations described are recorded in the protocol.

At the second stage of research, which is carried out 2-4 minutes after the first stage, the subject, also blindfolded, must feel each object and describe his feelings. In this case, the experimenter sequentially presents the same objects from the set, maintaining the duration of tactile recognition for 10 seconds and recording the verbal report of the subject in the protocol.

At the end of the research, the subject is asked to tell how he was guided by the influences exerted on the palm of his hand, when it was easier to recognize objects and when it was more difficult.

At the first stage, the subjects usually give a report on the individual properties of the object, and then try to establish it by giving it a name. On the second - the subjects usually first determine the object, and then give a verbal report on its properties.

The study of visual sensations. The subject is at a distance of 6 m in a position with his back to the poster, which shows a ring with a gap. At the experimenter's command, he turns and approaches the poster until he sees a gap in the ring. The distance at which the subject correctly determined the location of the ring break is recorded in the protocol. The test is repeated three times. If the results of the three studies differ by more than a meter, another measurement is taken.

The greater the distance from which the subject saw the direction of the break, the lower the absolute threshold of visual discrimination and the higher the visual sensitivity. Visual acuity is assessed using a special table. At a distance of 5 m, the discrimination angle is 1 ° - normal vision A visual acuity score of 1, 2, 3 points indicates visual impairment, which can be caused by both visual pathology and fatigue. The subject is recommended to consult an ophthalmologist, as well as to analyze the state of his own health and pay attention to the mode of work and rest, the alternation of physical and mental labor.

The study of musculoskeletal sensations. The subject is put on a blindfold, asked to stretch his arms forward with palms up, trying not to strain them. Sheets of paper are placed on the palm of the hand, on which the experimenter will then place weights of 4 and 5 g. The subject's task is to determine in which hand the weight is heavier. Then 1-, 2-, and 3-gram weights are added in succession until the subject can determine the difference in weight. This experience is repeated 3-4 times. If the subject's hands get tired, then he needs to rest for 1,5-3 minutes after the corresponding experiment. In each experiment, the hands on which the initial 4 and 5 g are applied are changed.

The average result of several experiments is an indicator of skin-articular sensitivity in distinguishing mass. To obtain an indicator, first, for each experiment, the difference in the weight of the right and left hands, which was determined by the subject, is determined. Then the indicator of the threshold of distinctive sensitivity is calculated according to the formula:

Sensitivity is considered very high if the sensitivity threshold is from 1,0 to 1,9 g, high - at Pk from 2,0 to 2,9, medium - at Pk from 3,0 to 4,9, low - at PK from 5,0 to 7,9 and very low at PK - 8,0 or lower.

30. The concept of perception

Perception - this is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.

Sensual knowledge of the surrounding world occurs through sensations and perception. Perception is based on sensations, but prior experience and comprehension are necessary for the emergence of perception. Unlike sensations, which give knowledge about individual properties, perception creates a holistic image of an object or phenomenon.

The first hypotheses about the nature of perception were put forward in antiquitywhen the difference between sense perception and thinking was shown. Perception was considered a function of the soul.

В middle Ages Ibn al-Khaytham, studying visual phenomena, pointed out that for the complete perception of objects, eye movement is necessary - the movement of the visual axes. He showed that for the appearance of a visual image, not only the effects of light stimuli are necessary, but also previous experience.

Descartes refers perception to the basic functions of the body, not the soul.

The first theories of perception were consistent with traditional associative psychology.

The reflex concept of the psyche I.M. Sechenov contributed to overcoming associationism in the interpretation of perception.

Representatives of Gestalt psychology argued that mental processes cannot be reduced to the elementary laws of the existence of elements. They talked about the existence and functioning of complex, integral systems and the need to clarify the structural relationships between the elements of these systems. The interaction of a complex of stimuli of different analyzers contributes to the emergence in the perception of objects of the surrounding world in the aggregate of their various properties and parts.

Primary analysis is performed in the receptors, which is supplemented by the complex analytical and synthetic activity of the brain sections of the analyzers. The physiological basis of this analysis is the conditioned reflex activity of the intra-analyzer and inter-analyzer complex of nerve connections that determine the integrity and objectivity of the reflected phenomena. Perception is the result of the system of analyzers. The predominance of one or another analyzer determines different types of perception.

A complex of stimuli causes excitation of various analyzers (auditory, visual, tactile, etc.), which enters the brain in the corresponding cortical centers. In the brain, a complex system of temporary nerve connections is formed. At the same time, the previously developed temporary connections are revived - the process of recognition is underway. The integration of these processes leads to the formation of a holistic perception.

I.P. Pavlov showed that in the perception of certain phenomena, the peculiarities of the relationship between stimuli are of particular importance, in connection with which the reflex is developed mainly on the relationship between stimuli.

A special role in the process of perception is played by the second signal system, which determines the content of perception. It makes the perceived object a verbal signal, connects perception with the activity of the individual.

Perception usually includes a motor component (feeling an object, speaking, eye movement, etc.).

Features of perception depend on life experience, the interests of the individual, her views, etc.

According to the features of perception, it is divided into types:

1) holistic (focused on the essence, meaning of the phenomenon) and detailed (focused on details, particulars);

2) descriptive (focused on facts) and explanatory (focused on the general meaning of information);

3) objective (focused on the accuracy of perception) and subjective (focused on the perceiving subject).

31. Types of perception

Distinguish between simple and complex perceptions.

Simple perceptions according to the leading role of the analyzer are divided into:

1) visual;

2) auditory;

3) tactile;

4) kinesthetic;

5) olfactory;

6) taste.

Complex types of perception are formed as a result of the interaction of different analyzers.

Depending on the reflected object, complex perceptions are divided into:

1) the perception of the shape of objects is carried out as a result of the interaction of the visual, tactile and kinesthetic analyzer. Of great importance in the perception of the shape of an object is its contour, which is distinguished by micromovement of the eyes and palpation of the object from all sides. In this case, the boundary between the object and the background is distinguished and movement along it occurs;

2) the perception of the size of the object - occurs as a result of assessing the size of the image on the retina and the distance from the eyes of the observer. Achieving a clear vision of objects is carried out with the help of accommodation and convergence.

Accommodation - changing the refractive power of the lens by changing its curvature. When closely spaced objects are examined, the muscular apparatus of the eye contracts, increasing the curvature of the lens. This makes it possible to clearly project the image onto the retina.

Convergence - convergence of visual axes on a fixed object. The perception of the size of an object occurs as a conditioned reflex signal resulting from a combination of two stimuli - the size of the image of the object on the retina and the tension of the eye muscles as a result of accommodation and convergence;

3) the perception of volume (depth) of objects is possible due to the visual perception of both eyes (binocular vision).

If the image falls on identical points of the retina of both eyes, the object is perceived as flat. When the points on the retina of the right and left eyes do not match (disparate points), on which the image of the object falls, depth perception occurs. If the disparity of the image of the object is too great, then the image begins to double. Of great importance for the perception of the depth of an object are also musculoskeletal sensations from contraction and relaxation of the eye muscles coming from proprioreceptors;

4) the perception of the remoteness of objects occurs as a result of comparing the relative positions of chiaroscuro, which depends on the location of objects. A person notices these features and learns, using chiaroscuro, to correctly determine the position of objects in space.

In the perception of distance, in addition to visual sensations, olfactory and auditory sensations play a significant role;

5) the perception of time is a reflection of the duration and sequence of phenomena or events. The perception of time occurs as a result of the constant development of conditioned reflexes for time, due to the rhythmic processes occurring in the human body (the rhythm of breathing, heartbeat, etc.). Only short time intervals lend themselves to accurate perception of time. The perception of the duration of time depends on the content of a person's activity, his interest, motives and attitudes of the individual;

6) the perception of the direction in which objects are located in relation to other objects or the observer is determined by the place of its image on the retina of the eye and the position of the body in relation to surrounding objects;

7) the perception of movement is a reflection of the change in position that objects occupy in space. Performs a signal and protective function. Occurs either with direct perception of the act of movement, or on the basis of inference about the movement of an object that has been in another place for some time.

32. Properties of perception

Objectivity - this is the property of perception to determine objects not by their appearance, but in accordance with how they can be used in practice or according to their main properties. Objectivity plays an important role in the further formation of perceptual processes. If there is a discrepancy between the external world and its reflection, a person is forced to look for new ways of perception;

Selectivity - preferential selection of some objects in comparison with others. This property is due to the fact that a variety of objects and phenomena cannot be perceived by a person at the same time. Only a small number of objects can be identified and understood by a person. What gets into the spotlight is the subject, the rest is the background. The concepts of object and background are dynamic and can change places: an object can become a background, a background can become an object.

Perception depends not only on the object (subject) of perception, but also on the subject who perceives it. The dependence of perception on experience, knowledge, skills, on the life principles and attitudes of the subject, on his attitude to the object of perception is called apperception. Perception occurs due to our sense organs, but the process of perception itself is carried out not by our sense organs, but by a specific person of a certain gender, age, belief system, etc. At the same time, the picture perceived by the subject is not just the sum of instant sensations, but contains details that could not even come into view, but are known to the person from previous experience;

meaningfulness perception - the conscious assignment of an object to any group, class, its generalization with other objects. This property of perception shows the close connection between perception and thinking. Seeing an unfamiliar object, our consciousness correlates it with other objects, categorizes it. Even meaningless ink blots Rorschach are always perceived as something meaningful (dog, cloud, lake) and only some mental patients tend to perceive random inkblots as such;

Integrity. Perception, unlike sensation, is always a holistic image of an object. The integrity of perception is not innate, but is formed in the process of life, based on the generalization of knowledge about the individual properties of an object, obtained in the form of a sensation. It is expressed in the fact that the image of perceived objects is not given in a completely finished form, but is completed mentally;

constancy perception - a property of perception, consisting in the ability of the system of analyzers to provide compensation for changes, due to which we perceive the surrounding objects as relatively constant in shape, color, size, etc. Multiple perception of the same objects under different conditions allows us to distinguish a relatively constant invariant the structure of the perceived object. Constancy of perception is also a property acquired in the process of individual development of a person and is of great practical importance. Constancy of perception is limited. In new unfamiliar conditions, constancy can be violated, getting used to the environment leads to the restoration of constancy. Allocate the constancy of size, shape, depth, speed and color;

Structurality Perception - Perception is not a simple sum of sensations. We perceive a generalized structure actually abstracted from these sensations. Structural perception is the result of reflex activity of analyzers. For example, when listening to music, we perceive not individual sounds, but a melody, and we recognize it if it is also performed by an orchestra, or one piano, or a human voice, although individual sound sensations are different.

33. Theories of sensation and perception

Philosophical theories:

1) idealistic views. Consciousness and sensations are primary, the material world is derived from them. Material things exist only in consciousness in the form of sensations. Outside of experience and consciousness, material things do not exist;

2) materialistic views. Matter is primary and does not depend on consciousness and sensations. Sensations are secondary and are only subjective images, copies that give ideas about the world. The world is a reflection of moving matter in our minds. Mental processes are a special property of matter, have an objective origin and can be studied objectively;

3) modern look. Feelings and the psyche are a reflection of the objective world. Sensations are derived from matter and are its reflection. The image exists only in consciousness, in contrast to material things that exist independently of the subject of his consciousness and psyche. The image is born in the mind of the subject during his interaction with the outside world. Feelings are the result of a comparison of the image and the object. Sensations and perceptions perform two functions:

a) signal-protective - notification of vital objects, their properties and the threat that may come from them;

b) reflective - the creation of a subjective image necessary for orientation in the world.

Both of these functions are interrelated and complement each other.

Pathophysiological theories are based on the "law of specific energies of the sense organs" by N. Muller (1826), which consists of two provisions:

1) the same sense organ responds with the same sensation to various physical stimuli;

2) the same physical impact causes different sensations in different sense organs.

The pathophysiological theory is considered from two positions:

1) the theory of physiological idealists. Information coming from the sense organs is perceived in a processed form in accordance with the "specific energies" inherent in this sense organ. A person perceives not the surrounding reality, but the result of the processing of this reality by the senses. Sensations and perceptions are only signs of the external world, which is hidden from us by the wall of sensations;

2) evolutionist theory. In the process of evolution, specialization of the sense organs took place, and, consequently, human sensations and perceptions improved, adapting to changing environmental conditions. "Specific energies" of the sense organs is a consequence of the complication of the process of reflection and activity in the course of a long evolution of living conditions, the psyche and the differentiation of sensitivity. The perception of these "specific energies" by the organism is due to their adaptive significance for the organism, their specific significance for the performance of signal-protective and reflective-shaped functions. And this specialization of the sense organs is very subtle and perfect. Through sensations, knowledge of the world becomes possible.

Receptor theory denies the active nature of sensations. When exposed to an irritant, a passive response occurs in the receptors in the form of a sensation, which is a mechanical imprint of external influence on the corresponding sensory organ. The receptor theory of sensations is recognized as untenable.

reflex theory considers sensations as an active process, which is expressed by vasoconstriction, turning of the eyes, etc. The motor component can manifest itself as an elementary reflex process (for example, with muscle tension) or as a complex process of active receptor activity (for example, when recognizing an intricate image). Receptors were formed in the process of long evolutionary development and reflect different types of matter movement.

34. Development of perception

Signs of object perception appear in a child already in the second or fourth month, when the child begins to distinguish between objects and faces, actions with objects are formed. By five or six months, the child is already able to fix his gaze on one object, to examine it.

At first, the child makes a large number of errors in assessing the spatial properties of objects. This is manifested even in the errors of the linear eye in children. For example, when perceiving the distance to an object, a child's error can be about five times greater than that of an adult. The perception of time is also a great difficulty for children. The child may also have difficulty mastering such concepts as "tomorrow", "yesterday", "earlier", "later".

Children's perception, especially at younger preschool age, is global: in a complex figure, the child perceives only the impression of the whole, without analyzing the parts, without synthesizing their relationships.

Certain difficulties arise in children when perceiving images of objects. So, looking at a drawing, telling what is drawn on it, preschool children often make mistakes in recognizing the depicted objects and name them incorrectly, relying on random or unimportant signs.

This is due to the lack of knowledge of the child, his little practical experience. The perception of the child is distinguished by the inability to separate the essential properties of objects and phenomena from the secondary ones, the omission of many details; limited information received. Under the influence of play and constructive activity, which begins at the end of the third year of life, children develop complex types of visual analysis and synthesis, including the ability to mentally divide the perceived object into parts, examining each of these parts separately and then combining them into one whole.

The ability to learn largely depends on the level of development of the child's perceptual processes, which are the basis of cognitive activity. By the time they enter school, children usually have a sufficient level of development of perception processes, knowledge of sensory standards - generally recognized samples of the external properties of objects (knowledge of colors, geometric shapes, etc.) and their active use.

In the process of school education of the child, the further development of perception takes place, which during this period goes through several stages. At the first stage, an adequate image of the object is formed in the process of manipulating this object. The next stage is connected with the acquaintance of children with the spatial properties of objects with the help of hand and eye movements. At the third stage, children acquire the ability to quickly and without any external movements to recognize certain properties of perceived objects, to distinguish them from each other on the basis of these properties.

Visibility greatly contributes to the development of thinking. However, it can not only help, but also hinder the process of mastering knowledge, hinder the possibility of isolating a learning task, mastering mental actions. This happens with a high brightness, emotional coloring of visual material that distracts the child.

The development of perceptual processes is greatly influenced by the activity of the child. At first, this is a game activity, during which not only motor experience expands, but also ideas about the objects surrounding it. Later, labor activity begins to develop perception, which in children can manifest itself not only in the form of socially useful labor, but also in the form of drawing, modeling, music, reading, etc.

35. Methods for studying various properties of perception

Observation Research consists in presenting to the subject two simple pictures, identical in everything, except for ten subtle differences foreseen in advance. The subjects are asked to carefully examine the pictures for 1 minute, find out what the differences are and write them down. After the study, it is necessary to find out whether the details of the pictures were clearly visible, whether the subject was satisfied with the results of his observation.

Processing of the results consists in counting the number of correctly noted differences, and the number of erroneously indicated, that is, non-existent differences, is subtracted from this number. The resulting difference is divided by the number of actual differences, i.e. 10.

The analysis of the results consists in comparing the obtained coefficient of observation with the maximum possible value, that is, with unity.

Coefficient 0,9-1,0 - high observation, 0,5-0,9 - average observation, less than 0,5 - weak observation.

Study of Time Perception is to determine the degree of accuracy of perception of short periods of time.

The study includes ten experiments, in each of which the subject is asked to determine the end of a given period of time (30 s, 1 min, 1 s, etc.), by raising his hand or signaling "Stop!", without counting or looking at the clock. The correctness of the assessment of the time interval is determined by the stopwatch.

The time interval specified for the determination and the actual time that the subject took for the specified interval are recorded in a table.

The accuracy of time estimation is determined for each experiment separately by the formula:

where Kt is the coefficient of time estimation accuracy; A - the actual time interval that has elapsed since the start of the assessment by the subjects of a given period of time; C is the time interval proposed for evaluation.

The closer the coefficients are to 100% (± 20%), the higher the accuracy of estimating short time intervals. If the coefficients are less than 80%, then the subject overestimates the time intervals, if more than 120%, he underestimates.

Study of cognitive control in visual perception

The study consists of three experiments:

1) the subject is presented with a table the size of a standard sheet of paper, on which words are clearly written denoting the names of the four primary colors: red, blue, green, yellow, and asked to read the words written in it as quickly as possible. The time of reading the words is fixed by a stopwatch;

2) first. The subject is presented with the same table, on which multi-colored stars of the same primary colors are drawn, and they are asked to name the color of these stars as quickly as possible. Time is fixed by a stopwatch;

3) is carried out immediately after the second. The subject is presented with the same table on which the names of colors are written, but the ink with which these names are written does not correspond to the name of the color (the word "red" is written in yellow ink, the word "blue" is written in green, etc.) and they ask how you can quickly, name the color of the ink with which these words are written. Time is fixed with a stopwatch.

The analysis and processing of the results consists in determining the value of the interference index according to the formula: P = T3 - T2, where T3 and T2 are the time indicators for completing the tasks of the corresponding experiments. The greater the interference index, the more pronounced is the narrowness, rigidity of cognitive control during perception. On the contrary, the closer the indicator "P" to zero, the more flexible the influence of cognitive control.

If "P" appears with a minus sign, then the study must be repeated.

The indicator of interference, that is, influence, reflects the independence of speech function and visual perception.

36. Representation, its characteristics and functions

Representation - these are images of objects and phenomena that arise in the brain on the basis of our previous experience without the impact of these objects and phenomena at the moment on the senses.

There are the following types of representations:

1) memory representations - representations that arise on the basis of our direct perception in the past of an object or phenomenon;

2) representations of the imagination - representations arising from the perception not of the objects and phenomena themselves, but of information about these objects and phenomena (stories of other people, books, films, etc.) and its more or less creative processing.

The formation of ideas occurs as a result of practical activity in close connection with mental processes: perception, thinking, written speech, memory.

The physiological basis of representations are traces left in the cerebral cortex of the brain from excitations that arose as a result of the perception of objects and phenomena or information about them. The revival of old nerve connections in the cerebral cortex under the influence of a stimulus leads to the appearance of a representation.

As in perceptions, in representations reality is reflected in the form of visual images, giving us the opportunity to mentally see or hear something, reflect visually, and not just know. But unlike perception, representations give a more generalized reflection of objects, reflecting only characteristic, visual, constant signs of objects and phenomena.

Representation is a higher level of knowledge than perception. It is the stage of transition from sensation to thought.

Representations have been studied much worse than other mental processes due to the lack of direct influence of the represented object.

One of the main features of representation is the interaction in it of the visual and the generalized. This is made possible by the joint operation of the two signaling systems. In the emergence of representations, the initial signals are the signals of the first signal system (colors, smells, shapes, etc.), the generalization of representations is achieved due to the participation in their formation of the second signal system (spoken or written word).

View characteristics:

1) visibility - representations, unlike concepts, are images, and not just knowledge; in contrast to perception, representations are much less visual, paler images;

2) fragmentation - the presence of gaps in the images of representation: individual parts and signs are presented brightly, others are very vague, and still others are absent altogether;

3) instability - the images of representation easily disappear and require volitional efforts to evoke;

4) inconstancy - the images of representation are usually very fluid and changeable (exceptions are people who have a highly developed ability to form representations of a certain type: musicians (the ability to form auditory representations), artists (visual)).

Views perform the following functions:

1) signal function - consists in reflecting in each specific case not only the image of an object that previously influenced our senses, but also diverse information about this object, which, under the influence of specific influences, is converted into a system of signals that control behavior;

2) regulatory function - consists in selecting the necessary information about an object or phenomenon that previously affected our senses, taking into account the real conditions of the forthcoming activity;

3) tuning function - consists in the orientation of human activity, depending on the nature of the environmental impact.

37. View types

There are various classifications of representations:

1) by type of sensation and perception:

a) visual representations - representations associated with visual perception. A feature of visual representations is that in some cases they are extremely specific and convey all the visible qualities of objects: color, shape, volume. In most cases, however, they convey only one side, while the others are either very obscure or absent altogether. The nature of visual representations is influenced by the practical activity during which they arise. Visual representations are very important for artists, architects, sculptors, teachers;

b) auditory representations - representations associated with sound perception. They are divided into speech and musical representations (representation of the ratio of sounds in height and duration). Speech representations can be: phonetic (representation of the word by ear) and timbre-intonation (representation by ear of the timbre or intonation of the voice). motor representations - representations associated with sensations that are relevant to a person. Motor representations cause small movements, invisible to the naked eye, but caught by special devices and especially sensitive people. Such movements are called ideomotor acts. When the possibility of these movements is excluded, representations become impossible;

c) tactile;

d) olfactory;

e) taste;

e) temperature;

g) painful;

h) organic - representations associated with sensations coming from internal organs;

i) synthetic - these are representations that arise on the basis of the activity of two or more analyzers. Thus, the sensations received from these small rudimentary movements form an inseparable whole with one or another visual or auditory image. Two groups of representations are distinguished: representations about the movement of the whole body or its individual parts (when visual and motor sensations merge) and speech-motor representations (when auditory and motor sensations merge);

2) by spatiality. Spatial representations are operated by blind chess players, draftsmen, architects, etc. Spatial representations are very important in mastering such school disciplines as physics, geometry, geography. In everyday life, spatial representations are used when drawing up a route. When moving, the image of the route is constantly in the mind, and if a person is distracted from it, he can make a mistake in movement. Many people are quite good at handling flat spatial representations, but are not able to operate with three-dimensional representations as easily. Distinguish:

a) flat representations - representations of images located in the same plane;

b) three-dimensional (stereometric) spatial representations resulting from the activity of visual and motor sensations;

3) by content:

a) mathematical;

b) geographical;

c) technical;

d) musical, etc.;

4) according to the degree of generalization:

a) single - based on the perception of one specific object;

b) general - based on the perception of several objects. General representations, unlike individual ones, are devoid of individual features. In the formation of general ideas, speech plays the most important role - naming a number of objects and general ideas in one word;

5) according to the degree of manifestation of volitional efforts:

a) involuntary - ideas that arise without volitional effort, spontaneously;

b) arbitrary - representations arising as a result of volitional effort, purposefully.

38. Individual features of representation and its development

Depending on the individual characteristics of the individual, different types of representations predominate in people. For some, visual representations are especially significant, for others - auditory, for others - motor. According to the predominant type of representations, people can be divided into four groups: persons with a predominance of visual, auditory, motor representations and representations of a mixed type.

For people with a predominance of representations of the visual type, it is typical, remembering the text, to imagine the page of the book where this text is printed, as if mentally reading it. If necessary, remember the phone number - it appears written or printed.

For people with a predominance of representations of the auditory type, it is typical, remembering the text, to imagine that he hears the spoken words. Numbers are also remembered in the form of an auditory image.

For people with a predominance of representations of a motor type, it is typical, remembering a text or trying to remember any numbers, to pronounce them to themselves, sometimes gesticulating.

People with pronounced types of representations are rare. Most people have a mixed type of representation.

The individual features of representations are also expressed in the degree of brightness, liveliness and completeness of the images of the representation.

According to this criterion, a figurative type of people is distinguished, in which bright and lively ideas prevail.

The type of representation also depends on the goals and tasks that a person needs to solve, on the habitual way of perception, etc. Thus, most people often represent the words of a foreign language visually, and the words of their native language - auditory-motor. This is due to the fact that a person constantly hears his native speech, and the words of a foreign language are usually studied in a dictionary. This leads to the fact that representations of foreign words are formed in the form of visual images.

The beginning of the development of ideas in individual development is not exactly known. It has been established that by the end of the second year of life, visual and speech (auditory-motor) representations already play a significant role in a child's life. Speech representations are of great importance for the development of a child's speech. At the same age, the first musical auditory representations appear, expressed in the memorization of melodies and in independent singing.

At preschool age, thinking has a visual-figurative character, that is, it is based on representations of various types. The memory of preschoolers is also built on the reproduction of ideas, so the first memories of most people are in the nature of pictures, visual images. The degree of brightness and accuracy of representations in children is lower than in adults. They increase with exercise.

The most important condition for the development of ideas is the presence of a sufficiently rich perceptual material.

One of the most important stages in the development of ideas is the transition from their involuntary emergence to the ability to arbitrarily evoke the necessary ideas. This stage is not always observed. Some people are completely incapable of arbitrarily evoking ideas in themselves. Any representation contains an element of generalization, and the development of representations follows the path of increasing the element of generalization in them, which

may follow the path of schematization - the loss of a number of private individual features and details (for example, the development of spatial geometric representations) or the path of development of typical images characterized by concreteness, clarity (for example, the creation of artistic images that, being specific and individual, may contain very broad generalizations).

39. The concept of memory

Memory - it is the ability to preserve and reproduce past experience, making it possible to use it.

Memory is the basis of mental activity. It links the past, present and future and is the most important cognitive function underlying development.

Memory is a condition for learning, the acquisition of knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities. It is at the core of human ability. Without memory, the normal functioning of either the individual or society is impossible. All living beings have memory, but it reaches the highest level of its development in humans. Improving memory helped man to stand out from the animal kingdom.

The main components of memory are:

1) reception - perception of the new;

2) retention - retention of new information;

3) reproductions - reproduction of the received information.

Memory features are:

1) the amount of memory - is characterized by the number of units of information that can be stored and reproduced;

2) playback speed - the speed with which the stored information can be reproduced;

3) fidelity of reproduction - the ability of a person to accurately store and reproduce information imprinted in memory; it depends on the amount of information that is lost during storage;

4) the duration of information storage - is determined by the time of information retention;

5) readiness to reproduce the information imprinted in memory.

Memorization and reproduction of information does not occur in isolation, but in connection with other information that is already present in memory. The physiological basis of associations are temporary neural connections that occur between brain cells.

There are the following types of associations:

1) associations by contiguity in time or space. Two phenomena or objects perceived at the same time or in the same space are interconnected by associative links, and when one of them is remembered, the second is also remembered;

2) associations by similarity or contrast. Associative links can also arise between objects and phenomena that are similar or diametrically opposed;

3) semantic associations - are the basis of learning. They arise when there is a semantic connection between memorized objects or phenomena.

Each person's memory is unique, it is encoded in ten billion nerve cells, our brain, and in ten trillion connections between these cells. Memory traces are living processes that are transformed and filled with new content every time we bring them to life.

Human memory is selective. Memorization and reproduction depend not only on the associative links between objects and phenomena, but also on the attitude of the individual towards it, its attitudes, interests and emotional coloring of these objects and phenomena for this individual. What is of great interest to us and has a certain meaning is remembered better and faster.

The process of memorization also depends on the conscious attitude to memorization. However, involuntary memorization may be more effective than voluntary memorization. Repeated repetition increases the accuracy and duration of memorization.

The memorization process consists of the following steps:

1) the stage of imprinting - occurs involuntarily;

2) the stage of conscious memorization - the conscious and deliberate imprinting of particularly significant material;

3) the memorization stage is an optional stage, when memorization is associated with certain difficulties and consolidating the material requires special techniques (repetitions, etc.).

40. Types of memory

There are several classifications of human memory:

According to the storage time of information, there are:

1) sliding memory - a direct reflection of information by the senses. Its duration is from 0,1 to 0,5 s.;

2) instant memory - memory-image - the residual impression that arises from the direct perception of stimuli;

3) short-term memory - working memory capable of simultaneously holding up to seven elements for a maximum of thirty seconds. Information disappears as soon as it becomes unnecessary. The holding time is on average about 20 s. (no repetition). Short-term memory stores a generalized image of perception, its most essential elements. The volume of short-term memory is on average from 5 to 9 units of information and is determined by the number of units of information that a person is able to accurately reproduce several tens of seconds after a single presentation of this information to him;

4) random access memory designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period (from several seconds to several days). The period of storage of information in this memory is determined by the task facing the person, and is designed only for solving this problem. After that, the information may disappear from the RAM;

5) long-term memory, which is stored in the mind for days, months and even years. Its work is determined by complex mechanisms for recording information that operate on a sensual, emotional and intellectual level. Information from long-term memory can be reproduced by a person any number of times without loss. Repeated and systematic reproduction of information enhances its traces in long-term memory. When using long-term memory, recall often requires thinking and willpower, so its functioning in practice is usually associated with these two processes.

According to the analyzer that prevails in the processes of memorizing, preserving and reproducing material, I distinguish t:

1) visual memory - associated with the preservation and reproduction of visual images. It is extremely important for people of all professions, especially for engineers and artists. This type of memory involves the development of a person's ability to imagine. It is based, in particular, on the process of memorizing and reproducing material: what a person can visually imagine, he, as a rule, remembers and reproduces more easily;

2) auditory memory - provides good memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds, such as musical, speech ... It is necessary for philologists, people studying foreign languages, acousticians, musicians;

3) motor memory is the memorization, preservation and reproduction with sufficient accuracy of diverse complex movements. It participates in the formation of motor, in particular labor and sports skills and abilities;

4) olfactory and gustatory - they play a protective role, helping to separate the edible from the inedible, and contribute to the digestion process;

5) tactile memory, which does not play a special role in human life, develops and becomes aggravated with the loss or inability to use the visual and auditory analyzer;

According to the nature of the participation of the will in the processes of memorization and reproduction of material, memory is divided into:

1) arbitrary - memorization occurs through the formulation of a special mnemonic task (for memorization, recognition, preservation or reproduction);

2) involuntary - memorization and reproduction occur automatically. Involuntary memory is divided into: logical and indirect.

41. Theories of memory

One of the first theories of memory, which has not lost its significance to this day, was association theory, which originated in XNUMXth century The basis of this theory is the concept of association - the connection between individual mental phenomena, as well as between them and the phenomena (objects) of the external world.

According to this theory, memory is a complex system of short-term and long-term, more or less stable associations by contiguity, similarity, contrast, temporal and spatial proximity, which underlie short-term and long-term memory (Ebbinghaus).

This theory could not explain the selectivity of human memory.

According to localization theories memory, any stimulus in the process of memorization leaves a physiological trace, or an imprint in the nerve cells of individual structures of the brain, which manifests itself in an increase in the plasticity (responsiveness) of neurons to excitatory influences in the process of memorization. This imprint underlies subsequent reproduction (Goering).

Followers of various localization theories put forward various parts of the brain as the custodian of information: the hippocampus, the reticular formation, the motor cortex, and glia. It was also assumed that memory is associated with changes in the structure of RNA molecules, as well as with the content of RNA in various brain formations. However, these assumptions have not yet received experimental confirmation.

Semon considered the stimulus not as material imprints, but as an energy impact that changes the excitability of matter. He called such a change in matter an engram (engram theory).

According to physiological theory of memory it is based on the physiological processes that occur in humans in the hemispheres of the brain (Pavlov). Any damage to the cortex in one way or another impairs the ability to develop new skills, sometimes causing memory loss.

Memory is based on complex dynamic combinations of the aftereffects of excitation processes, which create favorable conditions for the further restoration of excitation processes, favoring the reproduction of information.

The physiological process underlying memory is usually reduced to the breaking of neural pathways. When a stimulus is applied to the brain, excitation spreads diffusely through the cortex. In those nerve elements that are functioning at a given time or have recently functioned, excitation encounters less resistance - these elements drain excitation. As a result, there is a stabilization of the paths along which the excitation will go. Changes in resistance are the brain traces we call memory. The new excitation causes a whole bunch of neural pathways associated with it in the past, which causes the process of information reproduction.

To replace the associative theory of memory at the end of the XNUMXth century. comes gestalt psychology theory, which replaced the association of primary elements with their integral organization - gestalt. According to this theory, the need state of a person creates in him a certain setting for memorization or reproduction; it revives certain structures in the mind, on the basis of which, in turn, certain material is remembered or reproduced by a person. This theory could not explain the formation and development of human memory in phylo- and ontogenesis.

With the beginning of the development of cybernetics, psychology began to develop information-cybernetic theory of memory, according to which the process of memorization occurring in the brain is compared with the processes occurring in the computer.

There are other theories of memory.

42. Mnestic abilities and levels of their development

Memory consists of information that a person owns and mnestic abilities.

Mnestic abilities - these are the means by which the processes of storing, storing and reproducing information take place.

Mnestic abilities are an individual degree of memory expression of a particular person. This is a property of the functional systems of the brain to encode and decode information for the implementation of the function of memorization, preservation and reproduction, which have an individual measure of severity and qualitative originality, which is manifested in the effectiveness of activity and behavior.

The structure of mnestic abilities includes three different-level mechanisms:

1) functional mechanisms - this is a property of the functional systems of the brain to encode and decode information in order to memorize, store and reproduce it. These mechanisms are characterized by the following properties:

a) genotypic and congenital conditionality;

b) an individual measure of expression within certain, genotypically specified limits;

c) monomodality;

d) plasticity;

e) existence in inseparable unity with multi-level processes of analysis of perceived information;

f) represent an unconscious level of mental activity, but the result of their appearance can be realized;

2) operational mechanisms - mnestic comprehension of the material in order to memorize, preserve and reproduce it. The formation of operational mechanisms of mnestic abilities occurs due to biological (brain maturation) and social (learning) factors. Properties of operating mechanisms:

a) multi-level;

b) plasticity (mobility, dynamism);

c) congruence to the memorized material;

d) individual originality;

e) relative stability for each subject of the main characteristics of the operating mechanisms used by them and the level of their functioning (perceptual, figurative or mental);

3) regulatory mechanisms are a system of regulation external to memory and internal regulation located "inside" mnestic processes. Regulation external to memory (motives, goals of activity, emotions, volitional qualities) is expressed in personal meanings: "remember", "learn", "reproduce" or "forget". Internal regulation is the basis of regulatory mechanisms, which consists of the following actions: reflection of the conditions for memorization and reproduction; decision making (choosing an operational unit of memorization and reproduction); anticipation of the process and result of memorization and reproduction; formation of an idea about the program of memorization and reproduction; control of the process of memorization and reproduction through the evaluation of the parameters of the result; correction. The properties of the regulatory mechanisms of mnestic abilities include:

a) emergence as a consequence of the development of operational mechanisms;

b) influence on the mnemonic result through the management of the information processing process;

c) the ability to manifest itself relatively independently from the operational side of mnestic abilities;

d) can be an inseparable unity with the process of comprehending information.

The functioning of the system of functional, operational and regulatory mechanisms occurs in interaction with the information already stored by the subject.

In the process of developing mnestic abilities, four main levels are distinguished:

1) memorization based on functional mechanisms;

2) the emergence of operating mechanisms;

3) the development of operational mechanisms and the emergence of regulatory ones;

4) a system of functional, operational and regulatory mechanisms has been formed.

43. Patterns of the flow of basic memory processes

Memorization - the process of memory aimed at storing the impressions received in memory for its subsequent reproduction. Memory can be:

1) involuntary (occurs without the participation of the will, unintentionally, without the use of special techniques that ensure memorization) and arbitrary (occurs intentionally, purposefully in the process of memorization, for which volitional efforts are made, special techniques are used to promote memorization);

2) mechanical (based on the consolidation of external connections, associations through repeated repetition) and meaningful (based on the analysis, generalization and establishment of semantic connections of the new with already known material and between parts of this material; is faster and stronger).

G. Ebbinghaus established the following patterns of memorization:

1) simple, but bright, significant life events are remembered quickly and for a long time;

2) close attention to the event during its single experience is sufficient for its accurate reproduction;

3) the fidelity of reproduction and the confidence of the subject in the fidelity of reproduction are not always interconnected;

4) "edge effect" - when memorizing a long row, its beginning and end are best remembered and reproduced;

5) if there is a logical connection between words and phenomena, they are remembered more easily and more firmly;

6) repetition improves memorization;

7) increased attention to the memorized material reduces the number of necessary repetitions.

The strength of memorization depends on the properties of the individual, his interests and inclinations, on the stock of knowledge, on the purpose of memorization, on the desire to firmly master the material and the meaningfulness of what is being remembered.

Actions are remembered better than thoughts; among actions, those associated with obstacles or the obstacles themselves are better remembered (A.A. Smirnov).

Memorization is facilitated by diagrams, tables, diagrams, especially if you make them yourself.

Saving information - retention of information in memory. It depends on the depth of comprehension, on the attitude and significance of information for the individual. The main regularity of the process of storing information is that the information in the process of storage does not remain unchanged, but changes under the influence of new and already existing information. It is also capable of influencing other information itself.

Forgetting information - loss or partial loss of information. Forgetting is characterized by the following patterns:

1) immediately after memorization, forgetting is stronger than after a while;

2) at first, more complex and recently received information is forgotten, then simpler and received a long time ago.

Forgetting comes in three forms:

1) inability to remember or learn (complete forgetting);

2) in the impossibility of reproducing, but in the possibility of learning (partial forgetting);

3) in incorrect recall or recognition.

Reproduction of information - the emergence of images of objects and phenomena fixed in the memory without relying on the secondary perception of these objects and phenomena. Assimilated can be considered only that which is not only recognized, but also reproduced. During reproduction, the material is processed: the presentation plan changes, the main thing is highlighted, additional material known from other sources is inserted.

Reproduction can be involuntary and arbitrary. The success of reproduction depends on the ability to restore the connections that were formed during memorization. Phenomenon may occur during playback reminiscences, the essence of which is that playback delayed by 2-3 days is better than immediately after memorization.

44. Development of memory

The first manifestations of memory are found in children as early as infancy. So the child stops crying when he sees a bottle of milk or his mother. At the end of the first six months of life, the child already recognizes objects and people that are not associated with eating. At first, recognition is limited to a narrow circle of objects that constantly surround him, things and people with whom he often deals. At the age of two years, memorization is of a short-term nature: the child recognizes objects if a long break in perception does not exceed several days.

With age, the duration and range of subjects that the child learns increases. In the second year of a child's life, the latent period is only a few weeks, by the end of the third year - a few months. Related to this is childhood "amnesia," that is, the inability to remember what happened to us before the age of three. By the end of the fourth year, the child is able to remember what happened about a year ago. At this age, children begin to distinguish between the seasons. The first memories of childhood belong to the same period.

The first mnestic process that a child masters is recognition. Reproduction begins to be detected only in the second year of life.

In early childhood, the process of memorization is involuntary. A child in preschool and preschool age does not set himself the task of remembering anything. Arbitrary memory begins to develop in older preschool age. Its development is promoted by developing games and special classes that are held with children in kindergarten. It is easier and better to remember what a child is interested in. At preschool age, children begin to understand what they remember.

During school years, the child's memory gradually acquires arbitrariness, becomes consciously regulated and mediated. With the beginning of the learning process, the child is forced to remember and reproduce not only what is interesting and attractive, but also what the school curriculum gives. Immediate, emotional memory becomes insufficient.

The child's interest in schoolwork, his high cognitive motivation are a necessary, but not the only condition for the development of memory. In the course of learning activities, the child begins to master various methods of memorization (grouping material, enumeration, classification, systematization, understanding the relationships between objects and phenomena, etc.). One of the main in this way of remembering at this age is memorization, which is an effective, but rather primitive technique. It does not contribute to the development of a child's logical memory, which is more long-term and meaningful.

Techniques that develop logical memory include:

1) grouping - the division of material into groups according to some attribute;

2) strong points - highlighting theses, questions, etc.;

3) drawing up a mnestic plan - a set of strong points;

4) classification - the distribution of objects into classes, groups, categories on the basis of certain common features;

5) structuring - establishing the relative position of the parts that make up the whole;

6) analogies - the establishment of similarity, similarity of objects and phenomena;

7) schematization - a description of something in general terms, drawing up a diagram;

8) association - the establishment of links by similarity, contiguity or opposition of the memorized with well-known objects and phenomena, etc.

Learning a mnestic technique includes two stages:

1) the formation of the mental action itself;

2) using it as a mnestic device - a means of memorization.

45. Methods for studying memory

The study of the volume of short-term memory according to the method Jacobson. The study consists of 4 series and is conducted individually or with a group of 8-16 people. In each series, the subject is read one of the sets of 7 digital rows, the first row consists of 4 digits, in the subsequent rows one digit is added up to 10 digits in the seventh row. The numbers of the series are presented with an interval of 1s. After reading each row, after 2–3 s, at the experimenter's command, the subjects should reproduce these rows on a sheet of paper in the same order in which they were presented. The interval between series is 6-7 minutes.

When processing the results of the study, the following is established:

the number of rows reproduced in full and in the same sequence in which they were presented by the experimenter;

The longest row length that the subject reproduced correctly in all series (A);

The number of correctly reproduced rows greater than A (C);

Then, according to the formula, the coefficient of short-term memory (Kp) is calculated:

where n is the number of series of experiments, in this case - 4.

With Kp equal to 3-4, the level of short-term memorization is considered very low, 5-6 - low, 7 - medium, 8-9 - high, 10 - very high.

If a very low level of memorization is obtained, then the study is recommended to be repeated after a few days.

Study of mediated memory consists of two experiments. In the first experiment, the amount of memory of the subject is determined when memorizing verbal material, the subject is asked to remember the presented words and after 10 s. at the experimenter's command, play them aloud or write them down on paper. The experimenter should read the words clearly and quickly with pauses of 2 s. The experimenter notes in the protocol those words that are reproduced correctly and erroneously.

In the second experiment, the subject's memory capacity is determined when memorizing verbal material consisting of 20 pairs of words, 4-6 letters, with a predetermined system of semantic connections. The subject is asked to remember the second words of each pair. After 10 s. the experimenter again reads the first words of each pair, and the subject is asked to recall the second words of the same pair. In the protocol of the second experiment, correctly and erroneously reproduced words are noted.

After the end of the experiments, the subject is asked to describe how he memorized the words in the first and second cases, and the number of correctly and erroneously reproduced words for each experiment is counted. The data is entered into a pivot table and analyzed. With direct memorization, the subject remembers 5-9 words, with the use of mnemonic techniques 10 or more. Most of the subjects remember better the beginning and the end or the middle of the series, depending on this, recommendations are made to improve memory.

Study of the predominant type of memorization consists of four experiments. In the first experiment, 10 memorization words are presented by ear. In the second - visually, and each word should be clearly written on a separate card. In the third experiment, a motor-auditory form of presentation is used (they are asked to listen to words and write them in the air with a pen) and in the fourth - a combined form that combines auditory, visual and motor perception of the material. The interval between the presentation of new words in all cases is 3 s. After 10 s. At the end of each experiment, the subject is asked to write the words on paper in the order in which they were presented. The break between experiments is 5 minutes.

The predominant type of memory in different types of presentation of verbal material is determined by comparing the number of correctly reproduced words in each of the four experiments.

46. Memory disorders

Amnesia is the loss or lack of the ability to retain and reproduce previously acquired knowledge.

Types of amnesia:

1) fixation amnesia - this is a violation of involuntary memory for current events while maintaining a relatively good memory for past events. With fixation amnesia, a person correctly talks about the events of his childhood, school life, names the dates of social life, but cannot remember whether he dined today, whether his relatives visited him, what he did today, etc. This type of amnesia is more common in the elderly age, with some mental illnesses;

2) retrograde amnesia - occurs after a temporary disturbance of consciousness and is characterized by loss of memory for events that preceded the disorder of consciousness. Retrograde amnesia can cover a different length of time;

3) anterograde amnesia - this is a loss of memory for events that occurred immediately after the end of a state of upset consciousness or a painful mental state;

4) retroanterograde amnesia - combinations of the first two types of amnesia;

5) progressive amnesia - memory impairment, characterized by its gradual weakening. First the facts are forgotten, then the feelings, the last to be destroyed is the memory of habits. According to law Ribot, first of all, weakens, and then the memory for current events disappears with a good memory for events of the distant past, which acquire special relevance in the mind of the patient. People suffering from this type of amnesia begin to confuse the past with the present, and disorientation in time and space develops.

Paramnesia - these are memory impairments, which are characterized by erroneous, false, false memories.

Types of paramnesia:

1) pseudo-reminiscence - a violation of memory, in which a person remembers the events that really took place, but relates them to a different time, place;

2) confabulation - a type of paramnesia in which the patient reports fictitious events as if they actually happened;

3) cryptomnesia - a memory disorder in which a person cannot remember when this or that event happened, in a dream or in reality, whether he wrote a story or simply remembered what he once read, whether he went to the cinema or just wanted to go there. Cryptomnesias, which are physiological in nature, are common in young children who often confuse dreams or images of their imagination with reality. This is due to the great brightness of the imagination characteristic of childhood.

Violation of memory from the side of its dynamics - memory impairment, a feature of which is the intermittent nature of mnestic activity. People with such disorders remember and reproduce material well for some period of time, but after a short time they cannot do this. These violations are manifested when checking reproduction: having memorized 10 words, such a person after the second or third presentation will remember 6-7 words, after the fifth - only 3 words, and after the sixth - again 6-8. People with such disorders sometimes reproduce in detail the content of the story, proverbs, then suddenly they are not able to convey a very easy plot. Thus, in this case, mnestic activity is intermittent. Its dynamic side is broken.

The inertia of mnestic processes characteristic of patients with damage to the frontal lobes of the brain, who usually do not lose their memory, but their mnestic activity is significantly hampered. They are characterized by stereotyping and difficult switching from one link of the memory system to another. This is due to the weakness and instability of excitations in the cerebral cortex.

47. The concept of thinking

Thinking - this is a mental process, which consists in highlighting the existing and common features of objects and phenomena of reality and their relationship on the basis of analysis and synthesis.

Thinking is one of the most complex cognitive processes. The characteristics of thinking are:

1) mediation of knowledge of objective reality. Mediation is the ability of the human psyche to form judgments about the properties of objects and phenomena as a result of the analysis of information obtained from indirect sources. Due to the mediation of thinking, a person is able not only to create real images of the surrounding reality, but also to reason, predict, make predictions about phenomena that do not yet exist at the moment;

2) a generalized reflection of the surrounding reality. Thinking is a reflection of the essential in the accidental, the general in the individual. Thanks to generalization, a person is able to establish patterns between objects and phenomena of the surrounding world;

The purpose of thinking is to solve a problem, question, problem.

The problem solving process consists of several stages:

1) awareness and preliminary orientation in the conditions of the task;

2) drawing up a strategic plan and choosing means to solve the problem;

3) actual mental operations aimed at solving the problem;

4) intermediate check of mental activity;

5) comparison of the result obtained with the question posed, the conditions of the problem.

In preparing the solution to the problem, it is also proposed to single out the latent (incubation) period necessary for the activation of the unconscious creative resources of the individual, which are the cause of sudden insight, enlightenment.

The basic unit of thinking is a thought - a single mental action, consisting in comparing and analyzing the available information to determine its reliability or falsity, similarity or difference, and cause-and-effect relationships.

Another component of mental activity is association. Associations provide significant assistance in solving problems. They guide mental activity, reinforce the conclusions drawn, serve as a stepping stone for the next conclusion.

The human thought process, unlike animals, is inextricably linked with speech. Thanks to speech, the formulation, consolidation, fixation of thoughts in words occurs. This helps to keep attention on various points and parts of thought, contributes to a deeper understanding, awareness of thought. On the basis of this connection, a detailed, consistent, systematic reasoning becomes possible, a comparison with each other of all thoughts that arise in the process of thinking. In addition, due to the close connection of the thought process with speech, the thought is firmly fixed in the speech formulation and reflected on paper.

Thinking has a social nature. Thanks to speech, the continuity of the knowledge gained in the process of thinking becomes possible, their fixation, consolidation, preservation and transfer from one person to another, from generation to generation in books, films, audio and video recordings, etc. At present, the process of transmitting information is becoming more becomes digital.

In the process of the development of society, scientific knowledge obtained as a result of the mental activity of many generations is developed and systematized.

Thinking is an integral component of a person's self-awareness, which implies awareness of oneself as an object of thinking, differentiation of one's internal thoughts from those of others brought from outside, awareness of the task that needs to be solved as one's own, awareness of one's own attitude to the task.

48. Types of thinking

According to the form:

1) visual-effective thinking is a type of thought process based on the direct perception of objects and phenomena, their transformation in reality. It is genetically the earliest type of thinking. Elementary forms of visual-effective thinking are observed not only in humans, but also in animals;

2) visual-figurative thinking is a type of thinking associated with the presentation of situations and changes in them, with the creation of images. Thanks to him, it is possible to recreate the real characteristics of an object, as an image seen from different points of view. Visual-figurative thinking also makes it possible to carry out unusual, incredible combinations of objects and their properties in an image, to carry out operations that are not feasible in reality. It allows you to mentally take the position of an outside observer;

3) verbal-logical thinking is a conceptual type of thinking based on the use of logical operations and concepts. The basis of this type of thinking is the development of language means of communication. It is characterized by abstraction, operating with the most essential features and properties of objects, groups and classes of these objects.

The nature:

1) theoretical thinking is thinking that develops in the process of mentally operating with scientific concepts, analyzing the generalized characteristics of an object, and establishing general patterns. It is based on abstraction and is aimed at explaining phenomena, knowledge of laws, rules. Theoretical thinking operates with general systemic properties of objects;

2) practical thinking is thinking that develops in the process of transforming reality. It is based on the concretization of general knowledge and information.

Degree of expansion:

1) analytical or logical thinking - a type of thinking that is carried out through sequential logical conclusions. It is deployed in time, consciously, has clearly defined stages;

2) intuitive - a type of thinking, which is based on direct penetration into the essence of the phenomenon, the establishment of patterns. It is characterized by a rapid flow, the absence of clearly defined stages, low awareness;

3) pralogical thinking as a special kind of thinking appeared at an early stage of development, when mankind had not yet formed a system of logical laws. In modern society, its elements are manifested in everyday superstitions, prejudices, mass fears, etc. It is inseparably linked with the mythological and mystical worldview.

By degree of novelty:

1) reproductive thinking is a type of thought process that is based on the reproduction and application of ready-made knowledge and skills;

2) productive or creative thinking is a type of thought process that is characterized by the creation of a subjective new product and a significant transformation in the cognitive activity itself. It presupposes the personal involvement of the subject in the process of cognition and transformation of reality.

According to the degree of volitional participation:

1) involuntary thought processes occur without the participation of the will of the individual. Examples of such processes are the transformation of dream images;

2) arbitrary thought processes occur under the influence of the will of the individual. Example: solving mental problems.

In relation to reality:

1) realistic thinking is mainly aimed at the outside world, regulated by logical laws;

2) autistic thinking - a pathological variety of thought processes, characterized by a separation from direct experience, reality.

49. Theories of thought

All currently existing theories of thinking differ radically into two large groups on the issue of the origin of thinking. The first group of theories that has received special distribution in German psychology, the representative of which can be called gestalt psychology, believes that intelligence and intellectual abilities are innate internal structures that provide the perception and processing of information.

The followers of this group of theories in modern psychology reveal thinking through the concept of a schema or internal logic that develops and can change in the course of a person's life.

The second group of theories considers the intellect as a structure that develops in the process of life under the influence of the external environment and the internal development of the organism in their interaction.

Early theories of thought. Representatives of the second group of concepts at an early stage identified thinking with logic, considering only one type of thinking - theoretical conceptual thinking. Thinking was recognized as an innate ability. Among the intellectual abilities, contemplation (as the ability to operate with images), logical reasoning (as the ability to reason and draw conclusions) and reflection (as the ability to introspection) stood out. The operations of thinking included generalization, analysis, synthesis, comparison and classification.

Associative theory of thinking. Thinking was reduced to associations, connections of traces of the past, impressions received from present experience. Thinking was also recognized as an innate ability. This theory could not explain the creative nature of thinking and considered it as an innate ability of the mind, independent of associations.

Theory of thinking in behaviorism. Thinking was seen as a process of forming complex connections between stimuli and responses. Behaviorists were the first to consider practical thinking, becoming: practical skills associated with problem solving.

Psychoanalytic theory of thinking. Within the framework of this theory, for the first time, unconscious forms of thinking, the dependence of thinking on needs and motives, and protective mechanisms of thinking began to be considered.

Activity theory of thinking was developed by domestic scientists A.A. Smirnov, A.N. Leontiev and some others. This theory is based on the doctrine of the activity nature of the human psyche. Within the framework of this theory, thinking is understood as a special type of cognitive activity, an ability to solve problems that is formed in vivo. Thanks to this theory, the problem of opposing theoretical and practical intellect, the subject and object of cognition, was finally solved, a new connection was discovered that exists between activity and thinking, as well as between different types of thinking itself. As a result of this, it became possible to solve the issues of the origin of thinking, its formation and development in children as a result of purposeful learning. The activity theory of thinking was the impetus and basis for the development of theories of learning by P. Ya. Galperin, V. V. Davydov and others.

At present, thanks to the successes of cybernetics, informatics, and mathematical programming, a new information-cybernetic theory of thinking has been created. It is based on the concepts of an algorithm as a sequence of actions necessary to solve a problem, an operation as a separate action, a cycle as a repeated action, and information as a set of information transferred from one operation to another in the process of solving a problem. A new concept of artificial intelligence has appeared, that is, the intelligence of a machine, which has much in common with human thinking.

50. Forms of imagination or mental images

There are three types of mental images or forms of manifestation of the imagination:

1) a concept is a form of thinking that reflects in the human mind the general and individual properties of an object or phenomenon. The concept acts as the highest degree of reflection of the world, manifesting itself both as a form of thinking and as a special mental action. The concept as generalized knowledge arises on a sensory basis, but does not have a visual form. In order to form a concept, a person must get acquainted with a whole group of individual objects and phenomena. The formation of a concept is possible only on the basis of generalization of essential features and abstraction from non-essential features. The concretization of the concept forms the representation. The concept arises on the basis of new discoveries in science, technology, and art. It is the product of a long socio-historical development of the people. With the development of society, the formation of new concepts, the transformation of old ones. New concepts are included in social experience and can be used by anyone. To master the concept, it is necessary not only to memorize the word, but also to use the concept for its intended purpose.

Concepts are divided into:

a) general (reflect the general, essential and specific features of objects and phenomena) and single (reflect individual, special features inherent only in a separate object and phenomenon) concepts;

b) empirical (created on the basis of comparison and fix the same objects in each separate class of objects) and theoretical (formed on the basis of objective relations between the universal and the individual) concepts;

c) concrete (having specific, partial features) and abstract (characterized by abstract features) concepts.

2) judgment - the main form of thinking, which reflects the relationship between objects and phenomena of reality or between their properties and features. They are expressed orally or in writing, aloud or silently. The main purpose of judgment is to establish a connection between phenomena. A judgment is a statement by a person of his opinion about an object or phenomenon, a designation of the connections established by him between objects and phenomena. The logical substantiation of judgments with the citation of verified facts and evidence is called reasoning. Judgments are divided into:

a) true (correctly reflecting objective reality) and false - judgments that do not correspond to objective reality;

b) general (concerning all objects or phenomena in general or a given category in particular), particular (concerning only some objects and phenomena) and singular (concerning individual objects and phenomena);

c) direct (express what is perceived) and indirect (express inferences or reasoning).

3) a conclusion is a conclusion from one or more judgments of a new judgment. Judgments that serve as starting points and from which another judgment is derived, are called premises of the inference. The inference can be:

a) inductive - a conclusion in which reasoning goes from single facts to a general conclusion;

b) deductive - a conclusion in which reasoning is carried out from general facts to a single conclusion;

c) analogy - a conclusion in which a conclusion is made on the basis of partial similarities between phenomena, without a sufficient study of all conditions.

Inference can lead a person to both true and false conclusions, and therefore it needs constant monitoring and critical evaluation from practice and various comparisons of the solution found with other known facts.

51. Creative thinking

The problem of the nature of creative thinking worried even the ancient Greeks, so Plato in addition to the concept of intelligence as a primordially human, earthly essence, he also singled out the divine creative mind, which he called - nus. This division was continued in the works of German philosophers Kant и Hegel. The creative component of the intellect began to be called the mind, its other part the mind.

M. Wertheimer, among the most important features of creative thinking, singled out such properties as adaptability, i.e., improvement of the situation and structure, which he saw in the fact that c. in the process of solving, an analysis of the features of the problem situation and a change in the functional values of individual elements of the situation within the framework of an integral structure take place. He also drew attention to the fact that the stimulation of creative thinking is possible only by "atypical", unusual tasks for a person, as a result of which he has to look at the situation in a new way, use the hidden properties of objects and unusual connections.

The concept of creative thinking J. Gilford is based on the connection of creative thinking with four features of a person, to which he attributed:

1) the originality of the ideas expressed, their unusualness, reaching the point of ridiculousness;

2) the ability to see an object from a new angle of view, which is called semantic flexibility;

3) the ability to change the perception of an object in such a way as to see its new sides hidden from observation - figurative adaptive flexibility;

4) the ability to produce a variety of ideas even in a situation that does not involve creative thinking - semantic spontaneous flexibility.

It has now been proven that creative thinking can and should be developed, and it has been established that a collective solution to a problem stimulates creative thinking. An example of the development of creative thinking is the "brainstorming" method, which is based on the separation of the process of putting forward hypotheses from their evaluation. This method includes a warm-up phase, when people are offered comic tasks, an idea generation phase, when any ideas for solving a problem are encouraged in every possible way, and an evaluation phase of the ideas put forward.

Experimental study allowed establish the conditions that affect the manifestation of creative thinking:

1) a proven successful way of solving a problem is usually applied first of all when meeting a new problem;

2) the more effort spent on finding a new solution, the higher the likelihood that it will be applied again;

3) protective reactions of the body caused by fear of failure inhibit creative thinking;

4) the more knowledge a person has, the more options for solving a problem he can offer;

5) stereotypes of thinking hinder creativity.

In addition to the conditions described, the development of creative thinking is also influenced by personality traits:

1) the tendency to conformism - the desire to be like others, the fear of standing out, which is most often associated with a psychological traumatic situation experienced in childhood.

2) rigidity of thinking, its poor switchability from one stereotypical point of view to another;

3) increased anxiety, self-doubt;

4) high internal criticality of one's own ideas;

5) lack of initiative associated with the fear of seeming ridiculous, ridiculous;

6) unwillingness to criticize other people, which can be associated both with the fear of seeming impolite, tactless, and with the fear of retribution, dismissal, condemnation from other people;

7) overestimation of the significance of one's ideas, manifested in the form of a kind of egoism - unwillingness to share one's ideas with other people.

52. Thinking and Learning

Learning and development of thinking go in parallel and mutually stimulate each other. Thus, the transition of a child from objective thinking to visual-figurative thinking contributes to the expansion of his horizons. At the same time, this transition becomes possible largely due to training.

The development of thinking and learning begins long before a child enters school. At first, learning takes place in communication with adults, then gaming activities are connected. By the beginning of school age, the thinking and all mental development of the child reaches a fairly high level. A first grader is already well versed in the world around him, knows how to guess riddles, solve problems, can quite coherently express his opinion about various events, knows how to draw, sculpt, design, etc.

Thanks to educational activity, there is a transition from visual-figurative thinking to verbal-logical, conceptual thinking. This entails a radical restructuring of all other mental processes.

The transition to verbal-logical thinking is associated with a change in the content of thinking, which is based on the operation of concepts. The child no longer operates with concrete representations that have a visual basis and reflect the external features of objects, but with concepts that reflect the most essential properties of objects and phenomena and the relationship between them. This new content of thinking is stimulated by learning.

The main stimulating effect of learning is the ability to carry out operations that are the reverse of those performed, that is, the child masters the principle of conservation. So, he understands that a liquid poured into another glass will not change its volume.

At the same stage in the development of thinking, under the influence of training, children come to understand the two most important logical principles:

1) the principle of equivalence, according to which: if A=B, and B=C, then A=C;

2) the principle that objects have several measurable characteristics, such as weight and size, which can be in different ratios: a pebble is small and light, a balloon is large, but still light, and a car is large and heavy.

Education also contributes to the emergence of such new formations of mental activity as:

1) analysis, the folding of which begins with the selection of various properties and features in objects and phenomena. As children develop, expand their horizons and get acquainted with various aspects of reality and special education, this ability is increasingly being improved. To develop this skill, the method of comparing this object with others with different properties is used. The practical use of this technique by the child himself leads to its consolidation. At the next stage of learning, the child is asked to highlight the properties of the object without comparison with other observed objects. Gradually, in the learning process, the concept of general and distinctive (private), essential and non-essential features is introduced;

2) the formation of an internal plan of action begins with a practical action with objects, then with its image, diagram, followed by the stage of performing the initial action in terms of "loud speech", then it becomes sufficient to pronounce this action "to oneself" and, finally, on in the final stage, the action is fully assimilated and becomes the action "in the mind";

3) development of reflection - the ability to evaluate one's own actions, the ability to analyze the content and process of one's mental activity.

New forms of thinking that emerge at school age become the basis for further learning.

Thus, the process of development of thinking and learning complement and stimulate each other.

53. Operations of thinking

Mental activity, penetration into the depths of a particular problem, the search for a solution to a problem facing a person, consideration of the elements that make up this problem, is performed by a person with the help of mental operations.

There are the following operations of thinking:

1) analysis - this is an operation of thinking, consisting in the dismemberment, crushing of any whole complex object into its constituent parts. The essence of the analysis consists in the selection in the object of one or another of its aspects, connections, relations, properties and elements. Analysis can be carried out not only with the object that we perceive at the moment, but also with the idea of this object, phenomenon. There is also an analysis of a concept, a train of thought;

2) withsynthesis is an operation, connections, combinations of separate parts or properties. Analysis and synthesis are interconnected and never exist apart from each other. Analysis is usually carried out simultaneously with synthesis, since analysis is directed not only to the selection of parts, but also to the disclosure of connections, dependencies between these parts. In the process of thinking, the whole (obtained as a result of primary synthesis) is used, which is split as a result of analysis, which makes it possible to know this whole more deeply and completely (secondary synthesis);

3) comparison - this is an operation consisting in comparing objects and phenomena, their properties and relations with each other, which as a result leads to the identification of commonality or differences between them. The establishment of commonality and differences between objects occurs as a result of the fragmentation of each of them into its component parts, the allocation of individual features (analysis), on the basis of these comparisons of these parts and features, their similarities and differences are established (synthesis). Comparison is an elementary thought process on the basis of which classification, systematization and other more complex thought processes are built;

4) generalization is a combination of similar objects or phenomena on a common basis. A special type of generalization is generalization - a generalization based on random, insignificant features, not supported by a deep analysis of each object and phenomenon. Another kind of generalization is the generalization of objects and phenomena on the basis of many similar features that are both essential and non-essential;

5) abstraction - this is an operation, as a result of which there is a distraction from the secondary non-essential features of objects, phenomena and the allocation of the main, main thing in them. Abstraction is the highest operation of thinking and is based on deep analysis and synthesis;

6) concretization - application of generalized knowledge to a specific case;

7) systematization - This is a grouping of objects and phenomena, both by the similarity of the main features, and by secondary features. In the first case, a type, class of objects and phenomena is distinguished, in the second - subspecies and subclasses;

8) classification - this is a complex mental operation, consisting in the systematization of subordinate concepts of any field of knowledge or human activity, used to establish links between these concepts or classes of objects. The grouping of objects occurs by highlighting the essential features in each of the items and finding the class a or genus, which is based on these features;

9) categorization - this is a mental operation of referring a single object, experience, phenomenon to a certain class, which can be verbal and non-verbal meanings, symbols, etc.

The operations of thinking are interconnected and do not act in isolation. When solving a problem, a person usually uses several operations.

54. Qualities of the mind

Qualities of the mind the totality of mental abilities possessed by the thinking of a given person.

Mind qualities include:

1) curiosity - the desire of a person to learn something new with which he meets in life;

2) curiosity - the desire to know the subject in many ways, to get to the main, previously unknown phenomena and causes of the observed fact, to find out the sources that cause this fact, that is, its origin, to establish everything connected with it, to reveal the conditions that cause it to change;

3) breadth of mind - the ability to look at events and phenomena globally, which manifests itself in a broad outlook, active knowledge of various areas of science and practice;

4) depth of mind the ability to reveal the essence of a phenomenon, to establish not any, but the most basic, essential connections between phenomena and within them, to separate the main from the secondary, the apparent from the real, the phenomenon from the essence, the main from the details. The depth of the mind is the most important link of mental activity necessary for solving problems. A deep mind is most often combined with curiosity and broadness of mind;

5) flexibility and mobility of the mind - the ability to widely and at the same time differentially use existing knowledge and experience, to involve diverse knowledge in solving a specific issue, to quickly digress from those connections that were established earlier, and easily form new combinations, to include a familiar concept, image, connection in new relationships, law, consider the subject from a new, unusual point of view, compare seemingly insignificant facts and draw the necessary conclusions;

6) sharpness of mind - the ability to see the new, unusual in the long-known and ordinary. The sharpness of the mind is based on the mobility of the mind, combined with the depth and speed of thinking;

7) independence of thought - the ability to put forward new ideas, tasks, find new solutions without resorting to the constant help and opinion of other people;

8) logical thinking - the ability to establish logical causal relationships between events and phenomena of reality. Logical thinking is characterized by a clear direction of the thinking process, its consistency, compliance with the question posed, the correct comparison of all large and small details;

9) the ability to foresee - the ability, based on a logical comparison of objects, events and phenomena, to predict new objects, events and phenomena that do not yet exist or are not known. Foresight underlies the processes of management, scientific and artistic creativity;

10) proof of mind - the ability of a person not only correctly solves the problem facing him, but also knows how to justify his decision, select from his knowledge such facts, phenomena of reality, revealed patterns that confirm the correctness of his reasoning, conclusions that would be convincing for others;

11) critical mind - the ability not only to discover, to learn new knowledge, but also to question the results obtained on the basis of other accumulated knowledge;

12) simplicity and clarity of thought - the ability to "turn" complex into simple;

13) originality, non-standard mind - the ability to look at the problem from an unusual point of view, abandoning the stereotypical, imposed methods of solution, action;

The qualities of the mind are directly dependent on the overall development of the personality: on the existing baggage of knowledge, on the richness and meaningfulness of a person’s experience, on the upbringing and breadth of his interests, on the depth of his higher feelings, on the level of development of independence of thinking and on the development of volitional qualities of the individual.

55. Development of thinking

The development of intelligence is traditionally considered in three directions:

1) phylogenetic - the study of development and improvement in the history of mankind;

2) ontogenetic - the study of the development of thinking throughout the life of one person;

3) experimental - the study of the process of development of thinking in artificially created (experimental) conditions, designed for its improvement.

Operational theory of the development of the child's thinking J. Piaget. J. Piaget identified four stages in the development of a child:

1) the stage of sensorimotor intelligence. At this stage, the ability to perceive and cognize the objects surrounding the child develops on the basis of their characteristic and stable properties and signs. It lasts from birth to two years.

2) the stage of operational thinking - begins at the age of two, when the child develops speech, he begins to distinguish himself from the world around him, the will appears and develops, visual representations are formed;

3) the stage of specific operations with objects begins at the age of 7-8 years and is characterized by the appearance of the reversibility of operations, the development of logical thinking, the ability to move from one point of view to another;

4) the stage of formal operations is typical for children aged 11-15. The child develops the ability to perform operations in the mind, using logical reasoning and concepts.

The theory of the development of thinking P.Ya. Galperin is based on the idea of a genetic relationship between internal intellectual operations and external practical actions.

The process of formation of mental actions, according to P. Ya. Galperin, consists of the following stages:

1) tentative acquaintance with the essence of the future action in practical terms, with the requirements that its result will have to meet.

2) mastering the practical implementation of a given action in an external form with real objects or their substitutes;

3) mastering a given action without relying on external objects or their substitutes. Speech performance of an objective action;

4) the transition from external to internal speech, pronouncing the action "to oneself";

5) the formation of a plan of inner speech, the transition of action from the sphere of conscious control to the level of intellectual skills and abilities.

It is generally recognized in modern psychology that the child is given concepts from birth, which are formed and developed through the assimilation by a person of the content that is inherent in the concept. In the process of development of the concept, its volume and content change, the scope of application of this concept expands and deepens.

The process of forming a concept becomes possible as a result of reaching the highest level of formation of speech thinking. L. S. Vygotsky and L. S. Sakharov established that the formation of concepts begins in early childhood and goes through a series of stages:

1) the formation of an unformed, disordered set of individual objects;

2) the formation of concepts-complexes on the basis of some objective features;

3) the formation of real concepts goes through the stages of potential and true concepts.

Information theory of intellectual and cognitive development Clara and Wallace is closely related to the information-cybernetic theory of thinking and is based on the assumption that a child from birth has three types of productive intellectual systems:

1) systems for processing perceived information and directing attention from one of its types to another;

2) systems for setting goals and managing purposeful activities;

system responsible for changing the first two systems and creating on their basis new similar systems of a higher level.

56. Exploration of thinking

Study of the influence of the installation on the method of solving problems can be carried out in a group of up to 9 people and includes 10 strictly sequential tasks. The conditions for each problem are written on the board. Each problem should be solved on a separate sheet, which, after solving, turns over (sign - problem solved). The time for solving problems is controlled and limited to two minutes.

The first five tasks assume a standard solution. Problems 6-9 can be solved in standard and more rational ways, problem 10 can be solved only in a non-standard way.

The time spent by each subject on the solution of each problem is recorded in the protocol. The record of the solution of the first five problems is unobtrusively checked, if the solution is incorrect, a hint is given. The solution of 6-10 tasks is not checked.

Processing and analysis of the results include the definition of:

1) an indicator of quickness of thinking - the arithmetic mean time spent on solving problems;

2) the speed of the development of the installation - the arithmetic mean time for solving the first five tasks;

3) the dependence of the search for a solution on the installation - the arithmetic mean time for solving the last five problems. If tasks 6 and 7 are solved by the installation (standard) method, then the degree of sensitivity to the installation is high. If one of the tasks is solved by the installation method, and the other by the non-installation method, then the sensitivity to the installation is medium. If both tasks are solved in a non-installation way, then we can state a weak sensitivity of the subject to the installation. If one of the tasks is solved by the installation method, and the other by the non-installation method, then the sensitivity to the installation is average;

4) the degree of fixation of the installation - according to the solution of 8 and 9 tasks. If both tasks are solved by the installation method, the degree of its fixation is high; if one of the tasks was solved by the installation method, and the other - by the non-installation method - medium; if both tasks are solved in a non-installation way - the absence or weak fixation of the installation;

5) the nature of the development of the set - according to how and with what speed the subject solved the first five tasks. It is considered optimal to develop an attitude when 3-5 tasks are quickly solved in an established way. If the subject was given hints, he changed the ways of solving the problem, and in the case of a large value of the indicator of the speed of thinking of the first five tasks, the development of the installation is considered suboptimal;

6) rigidity or flexibility of thinking is produced according to the result of solving problem No. 10. If the task is solved, thinking is flexible, if not, it is rigid.

A study of the analyticity of thinking under conditions of limited time can be carried out in a group, where each subject receives an individual form with 15 rows of numbers compiled according to a certain pattern (option VI of the subtest of the R. Amthauer scale). For 7 minutes, the subjects should try to determine by what pattern each of the 15 proposed rows of numbers is composed and, in accordance with this pattern, continue each row by adding two more numbers in it. The sequence of solving tasks is not required.

Processing of the results is carried out according to the table with ready-made answers. In the course of processing the results, the number of rows correctly solved by the subject is counted (when only one number is recorded, the row is not considered solved correctly).

The level of development of analytical thinking is determined by the number of correctly solved series of numbers.

14 - 15 solved rows indicates a very high analyticity; 11-13 - high or good; 8 - 10 - average or satisfactory; 7-6 - low or bad; 5 or less - very low or very poor.

Analyticity is the main component of the ability to theorize, to find causal relationships between phenomena.

57. Thinking disorders

Association Process Disorders:

1) accelerated thinking is manifested in a rapid change of thoughts, of which there are so many that the patients, despite very fast (“machine-gun”) speech, still do not have time to express them. The speech seems broken, but you can find a certain meaning in it. The patient's thinking becomes superficial, prone to instant switching, distractibility, which can reach the "leap of ideas", when it is already difficult to catch any general meaning in the patient's thoughts;

2) discontinuity of associations;

3) slowing down of thinking - slowed down by the course of the associative process, which is characterized by the poverty of associations;

4) detailed thinking - viscosity, stiffness of thought processes, reduced switchability, getting stuck on minor details, inability to highlight the main thing;

5) perseveration of thinking is a stuck, delay on the same ideas, which is manifested in the repetition of the same phrases or words.

6) verbigeration - meaningless repetition of the same words, phrases or their fragments;

7) paralogical thinking - the absence of logical connections in thinking;

8) reasoning is characterized by a tendency to empty reasoning, futility, lack of specificity, purposefulness;

9) fragmentation of thinking - lack of connection between individual thoughts or even individual words;

10) incoherence of thinking - randomness, meaninglessness of thinking, speech consists of a set of separate words that are not connected in any way with each other;

11) symbolic thinking - a purely individual and incomprehensible to others symbolism of both individual words, concepts, and the entire structure of thinking as a whole. The speech of others can also be perceived symbolically;

Overvalued ideas - these are thoughts that arise in connection with some real facts or events, but acquiring special significance for a person, determining all his behavior. They are characterized by great emotional richness, pronounced emotional reinforcement. Characteristic of psychopathic personalities. The following overvalued ideas stand out:

1) own exclusivity, talent;

2) physical handicap;

3) unfriendly attitude;

4) litigation.

crazy ideas - these are erroneous judgments, a false conviction that does not correspond to reality. Allocate:

1) delusions of persecution;

2) delusions of grandeur;

3) delusions of self-abasement.

Obsessions (obsessions) - this is the occurrence, in addition to the will, of obsessive experiences, a critical attitude towards them. Obsessive states are divided into:

1) obsessive thoughts (ideas) - the appearance of completely unnecessary, ridiculous stupid thoughts;

2) obsessive account;

3) obsessive doubts, which are usually accompanied by an unpleasant, painful feeling, are expressed in constant doubts about whether the person did this or that thing correctly, whether he finished it;

4) intrusive memories;

5) obsessive fears, which are usually accompanied by the appearance of a pronounced vegetative reaction in the form of a sharp blanching or redness, sweating, palpitations, rapid breathing;

6) obsessive drives (desires) are expressed in the appearance of desires that are unpleasant for a person (pull the nose of an oncoming person, jump out of the car at the highest speed), which usually do not go into action and are critically evaluated;

7) obsessive actions - this is an involuntary obsessive performance of movements, most often performed automatically (twisting strands of hair around a finger, picking one's nose, pulling one's ear);

8) rituals are obsessive actions performed as a ritual in the presence of phobias or painful doubts.

58. The concept of intelligence

There is no single definition of intelligence.

From a philosophical point of view, intelligence is a relatively stable structure of the individual's mental abilities, including the ability to think and rational knowledge.

The concept of intelligence also includes a system of skills, actions, operations, mental techniques, the nature of which depends on the culture of society.

Currently, there are several approaches to the concept of intelligence. From point of view cognitive psychology intelligence refers to the ability to acquire, reproduce and use knowledge to understand concrete and abstract concepts and relationships between ideas and objects, and to use this knowledge in a meaningful way.

genetic approach defines intelligence as the global ability of an individual to act intelligently, think rationally, interact effectively with the environment, adapt in it, adapting it to their capabilities.

Sociocultural approach considers intelligence as the result of the process of socialization and the influence of culture in general.

Structural-level approach understands intelligence as a system of multi-level cognitive processes.

Information approach understands intelligence as a set of elementary processes of information processing.

Regulatory Approach considers intelligence as a form of self-regulation of mental activity.

Phenomenological approach represents the intellect as a special form of the content of consciousness.

Process-activity approach considers intelligence as a special form of human activity.

The role of heredity in the development of intelligence is also ambiguously assessed. According to various estimates, the influence of heredity explains from 25% to 80% of individual differences in intelligence.

The inheritance of intelligence occurs polygenically, that is, it is determined by several genes that determine intellectual abilities.

There are three types of studies that draw conclusions about the influence of heredity on intelligence, as measured by tests:

1) study of the dependence of intelligence assessments of native and adopted children on the level of intellectual development of parents (adoptive parents);

2) the study of intra-pair similarity in terms of intelligence in genetically identical monozygotic and dizygotic twins, whose genotypes differ, as in ordinary brothers and sisters;

3) the study of the degree of intellectual similarity of persons with an identical genotype, but brought up separately (the so-called method of separated monozygotic twins).

The similarity in the level of intellectual development of monozygotic twins who grew up together corresponds to 0,86. Monozygotic twins separated in childhood have a lower similarity, but much more than, for example, siblings who live together but share only 50% of their genes.

There is a close relationship between the intelligence of children and their biological mothers. So, if a child had a biological mother with a high level of intellectual development, then even if he gets into a foster family with a lower intelligence, he will retain high intelligence with a probability of 0,6. A child who had a biological mother with an IQ below 95 will never have high intelligence.

The development of intelligence is also influenced by the environment: the conditions of training and education.

The influence of the genotype and the environment has its own dynamics in connection with age: in early childhood, the genotype is of great importance for the formation of intelligence; after two years, the directed formation of the brain begins with the conditions of social life, the level of culture of parents. Starting from adolescence, the influence of the environment decreases, and the genetic component increases again.

59. Structure of the intellect

There are several concepts of the structure of the intellect, which can be divided into two groups. The first group includes concepts that consider the structure of the intellect as a set of independent, albeit differently organized mental abilities; the second group consists of concepts in which preference is given to hierarchical models.

The first group of concepts includes the multifactorial theory L. Thurstone and structural model of intelligence J. Gilford.

Multifactorial theory of L. Thurstone. Telstone identified seven group factors that appear independently of each other and are responsible for specific groups of intellectual operations. He called them "primary mental faculties".

Group factors include:

1) "S" - "spatial" - the ability to operate in the mind with spatial relationships;

2) "P" - "perception" - the ability to detail visual images;

3) "N" - "computing" - the ability to perform basic arithmetic;

4) "V" - "verbal understanding" - the ability to reveal the meaning of words;

5) "F" - "fluency of speech" - the ability to quickly pick up a word according to a given criterion;

6) "M" - "memory" - the ability to remember and reproduce information;

7) "R" - "logical reasoning" - the ability to identify patterns in a series of letters, numbers, figures.

The structural model of intelligence by J. Gilford considers intelligence as a multidimensional phenomenon that can be assessed by measuring three parameters:

1) by the nature of operations - synthesis, analysis of memorization is evaluated;

2) in terms of content - it can be a manipulation, actions with symbols, transformation of the meanings of behavior;

3) by product - it can be an element (individual information), a class (a set of information), a relation (express connections between things), a system (a block consisting of elements and connections between them), a transformation (transformation and modification of information) and a transformation (ra judgment, the possibility of inference from the available information).

The combination of operations, contents and products of mental activity creates 120 different intellectual abilities. Schematically, Guildford's model is depicted as a cube, consisting of 120 small cubes - abilities. The three faces of the cube represent the three described parameters.

Another group of concepts based on the idea of the presence of a general factor of intelligence, which ultimately determines the specificity and productivity of all human intellectual activity, includes the two-factor theory of intelligence by Ch. Spearman, the theory of progressive matrices by J. Raven, etc.

Ch. Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence - is based on the fact of the presence of positive correlations between the results of the execution of various intellectual tests. The basis for this connection is the presence in each of the tests of a certain common beginning, called the "general intelligence factor" - the "G" factor. Differences in the level of the "G" factor determine individual abilities to establish connections and relationships between the elements of their own knowledge and the elements of the content of the test problem. The second factor "S" was subsequently differentiated into groups of arithmetic, mechanical and linguistic abilities. It characterizes the specifics of each specific test task.

The theory of progressive matrices J. Ravenna. J. Raven held the view that mental abilities include two components: productive - the ability to identify connections and relationships, to come to conclusions that are not directly presented in a given situation; and reproductive - the ability to use past experience and learned information.

60. Intelligence assessment

In the XNUMXth century a large number of psychological tests were developed in which the speed of reflexes, reaction time, the time of perception of certain stimuli, the pain threshold when pressing on the skin, the number of letters after listening to the letter rows, etc. were determined. The main result of these tests was the fact that if for most people these indicators only slightly deviate from the average level, then for some of the subjects, the reaction time was significantly more or less than typical values. Thanks to these results, all subjects could be divided into lagging behind, with average performance and super-gifted, with high performance.

Later, Binet and Simon included in their intellectual scale, focused on measuring the level of development of the child, more complex cognitive functions (memorization, awareness, understanding, etc.). They were based on the fact that a person with intelligence is one who "rightly judges, understands and reflects" and who, thanks to his "common sense" and "initiative", can "adapt to the circumstances of life."

Based on Binet's tests, the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ) was subsequently developed. Historically, IQ was expressed as the proportion of mental development and chronological age multiplied by 100. Nowadays, IQ is measured in other ways, but still on a scale of 100 units with a standard deviation of 16.

Further studies of the intellectual development of people of different ages, which revealed the non-linear nature of age-related changes in intelligence, as well as the development of the mathematical and statistical apparatus of psychological research, forced psychologists to abandon this method of measurement and introduce standard IQ indicators based on the statistical place that an individual occupies in his age group.

The use of the IQ in adults was first carried out by D. Wexler, who later developed a qualitative classification of the levels of intelligence development based on the frequency of occurrence of a certain IQ. So, IQ 130 corresponds to very high intelligence, 120-129 - high intelligence, 110-119 - slightly above average intelligence, 90-109 - average intelligence, 80-89 - reduced intelligence rate, 70-79 - borderline level of development, 69 and below - mental defect (dementia).

Test results are related to the ability of test-takers to quickly and clearly understand and complete the task. For most people (about 68%), the IQ is in the range of 84-116 points and is considered to be people with average intelligence. The highest level of IQ is observed among intellectual workers: researchers, students, teachers, chemists and mathematicians.

In a number of foreign countries, the indicator of general intelligence IQ serves as the basis for determining readiness to continue education, get a prestigious job, promotion, etc.

In the study of intelligence, it is recommended not to be limited only to the definition and interpretation of IQ, but to supplement them with an analysis of the relationship between various aspects of intelligence, for example, verbal and non-verbal, practical and theoretical, mathematical, technical, etc.

Thus, to measure a more or less holistic measure of the level of intelligence, two "subtests" are often used. In one, tasks are proposed that require actions using verbal intelligence, in the other, tasks are required that are practically not related to semantic actions, i.e., aimed at assessing non-verbal intelligence. The overall indicator is the sum of the results of the first and second subtests.

61. The concept of imagination

Imagination - this is a mental process consisting in the transformation of ideas, past experience, one's own experiences and the formation on their basis of the image of an object, phenomenon, situation.

Imagination occupies an intermediate position between perception, thinking and memory. A feature of the imagination is that it is characteristic only of a person.

Another feature of the imagination is the obligatory departure of imaginary images from reality, which, however, in any case is the source of the imagination.

The emergence of imagination as a mental process is associated with the beginning of the labor activity of a primitive person, since it is in the process of labor that a person first needs to foresee the image of the created object. The development of speech and needs also contributed to the development of the imagination. Primitive man, deprived of knowledge of the objective laws of nature, being alone with it, was forced to develop his imagination.

On the basis of imagination, reasonable planning and management of activities becomes possible, a special type of activity is creativity. It actively interacts with other mental processes, such as memory, perception, thinking. Representations of memory, impressions are supplemented by images of the imagination. Imagination brings sensory images into thinking, without which thinking becomes difficult. It lies in the basis of visual-figurative thinking, which allows a person to navigate the situation and solve problems without directly transforming reality.

Imagination is an integral part of human activity, cognition and social interaction. Imagination is necessary not only for creative people (poets, artists, musicians, scientists), without imagination the activity of an engineer, doctor, teacher, draftsman, etc. is impossible. It helps a person in many ways in those areas of life when practical actions are impossible, difficult or represent danger to his life.

A feature of the imagination is that it takes a person beyond the limits of his present, helps to penetrate into the past, opens up the future. Imaginative people can live in different time and space. However, all this becomes possible only on the basis of memory, which stores past experience, will, which contributes to its resurrection, sensations and perceptions on the basis of which past experience, ideas and thinking were obtained, which participate, along with imagination, in the creation of dreams and fantasies. .

The mechanisms of imagination are very complex and not fully understood. The fixation of past experience, ideas and knowledge of a person about the world occurs due to the formation of a system of temporary connections that are quite dynamic: they are constantly changing, replenishing, transforming. The formation of a new imaginary image occurs as a result of new combinations of temporary connections that have already been formed in the cerebral cortex. This formation becomes possible as a result of the process of dissociation, i.e., the splitting of existing bonds, which are included in new systems of bonds. This process takes quite a long time and consists of several phases, some of which are realized by a person, and some remain without corresponding awareness, flowing in weakly excited areas of the cerebral cortex.

Both the first and second signaling systems take part in the creation of new images. The formation of images of the imagination occurs with the continuous participation of cortical areas responsible for the speech function. Speech transformation of an imaginary image contributes to its clearer design.

62. Types of imagination

passive imagination - this is a type of imagination, which is based on unfulfilled desires, conscious and unconscious needs of the individual. The images of the passive imagination tend to strengthen and preserve positively colored emotions and are aimed at the displacement and reduction of negative emotions.

Passive imagination is built on images and representations of past experience. It is divided into:

1) involuntary imagination occurs unconsciously and does not depend on the goals and intentions of a person. They occur when a person's activity decreases. These include:

a) dreams - images that are born in our subconscious or associated with the residual activity of individual sections of the cerebral cortex;

b) delirium develops when the work of consciousness is disturbed or as a result of mental, infectious diseases accompanied by high fever, alcohol or drug poisoning. Delusional images are usually negatively emotionally colored;

c) hallucinations are a distorted perception of reality, with reduced control of consciousness, which develops under the influence of certain toxic and narcotic substances;

d) hypnosis - a state of disconnected consciousness resulting from the suggestion of a hypnotist. Hypnotic images resemble real perception, but exist only in the psyche of the hypnotized person. They appear and disappear according to the hypnotist's instructions.

2) arbitrary imagination arises on the basis of the work of consciousness and is subordinated to a creative plan or tasks of activity. These include:

a) dreams or images of the desired future to which a person aspires;

b) dreams - arbitrary images, always having a positive color. They arise at the moment of decrease in the activity of consciousness, most often in half-sleep.

active imagination directed to the future without losing a sense of reality. It is aimed at human activity, at the formation of his connections with the environment, society, but can also be associated with internal subjective problems of the individual. Active imagination is determined by volitional efforts and is subject to volitional control; it is awakened and directed by an appropriate creative or personal task. It practically does not bear reverie and "groundless" fantasy. It has the following forms:

a) recreating imagination - one of the types of active imagination that arises on the basis of previous experience: verbal messages, schemes, conditional images, signs, etc. perceived from the outside. In the process of recreating imagination, recombination occurs, reconstruction of previous perceptions in their new combination;

b) creative imagination is a type of active imagination, which results in the creation of new images and ideas that are of value to other people or society and are embodied in original products of activity. Images of creative imagination can be created through the formation of ideal images or based on the processing of finished products. To facilitate the creation of creative images, there are special techniques and techniques, such as agglutination (a combination of details, parts previously belonging to different objects), rescaling (changing the proportions, volumes of an object, giving it novelty), etc.;

c) anticipatory imagination is aimed at anticipating future events. On its basis, it becomes possible to predict and predict future events and performance results;

d) artistic imagination - the creation of artistic images;

e) scientific imagination - the creation of new scientific concepts, theories;

technical imagination - the creation of new technical structures, products, etc.

63. Characteristics and functions of the imagination

The main characteristics of imagination are:

1) brightness and clarity of imagination - rather variable characteristics of the imagination, which depend both on the individual characteristics of the person and on the emotional coloring that accompanies the imagination, the age and gender of the person. Usually, the imagination of people of creative work is distinguished by great brightness and distinctness: scientists, writers, poets, artists, musicians. The brightness of the impression is influenced by the emotional state of a person, and the stronger the positive or negative emotional experiences, the higher the brightness of the imagination. In childhood, the brightness and distinctness of the imagination is much greater, which is manifested in the fact that children often confuse the fantastic images of their imagination with real events and characters. Women generally have more vivid imaginations than men;

2) controllability i.e., the ability to influence and change the content of the process of imagination or individual parameters of images of imagination at the discretion of the person himself. As a rule, high controllability is more typical for men and correlates with high productivity of imagination processes. Children, unlike adults, have poor control over their fantasies;

3) realism of imagination, i.e. proximity to objects and actions reflected in the form of an image. The realism of images of the imagination is of great importance for the realization of the goals of the activity, for the coincidence of a specific result with the desired one. This is a rather labile characteristic of the imagination in the individual plan, which largely depends on the individual characteristics of the individual. So, a special type of people called projectors, whose imagination differs sharply from reality, today's realities of life. It has been established that men have greater realism of imaginary images;

4) degree of image activity, i.e., the ability of images to act as regulators, motives for activity and behavior. Significant influence on the degree of activity of images has their emotional richness. Thus, various neurotic fears are capable of replacing real events in their imagination. Dreams and ideals also have a high degree of activity. The least activity is characteristic of erotic fantasies and dreams. High suggestibility also leads to a decrease in activity. It makes them easily changeable, corrected by other people. The activity of images of the imagination also has individual lability and depends on the presence in the mind of one or another form of imagination. One and the same image may have a great motive power for one subject and insignificant for another. So for visualists, the predominance of visual images is characteristic, for auditory - sound, for kinesthetics - motor and tactile.

The main functions of the imagination:

1) image planning desired future by correlating elements of perception and past experience with the results of thinking;

2) goal setting - creating an image of the future result of the activity, which is created in the imagination and directs its activity to obtain the desired;

3) replacing reality with imaginary images, which occurs when it is impossible for any reason to perform a real action;

4) anticipation - anticipation, forecasting and modeling of the future by summarizing the elements of past experience and establishing relationships between its elements;

penetration into the inner world of another person - on the basis of this function, a person becomes capable of empathy, empathy, sympathy.

64. Creative thinking and imagination

Creativity is closely connected with all mental processes, including imagination and thinking. The result of creative imagination is images-concepts in which the content of the concept is formed and strengthened. Creativity becomes possible thanks to the knowledge available to a person, which is supported by the corresponding abilities and purposefulness of a person. One of the most important conditions for creativity is the emotional background, the presence of certain experiences. So, many great creations were created under the influence of love experiences, experiences of irreparable losses, etc.

Creative fantasies are never completely out of touch with reality. The decomposition of fantasy into its constituent elements shows that the effect of the fantastic, the unreal is created as a result of the combination of almost never combined objects and phenomena. This statement is true, even in the case of considering the paintings of abstract artists and cubists. In the constituent elements of these paintings, we will see various combinations of very real geometric shapes.

For a long time, it was believed that teaching the creative process was impossible. However, at present, the possibility of developing creative thinking and imagination has been convincingly proven. The only question is that there are individual typological features of imagination, memory, perception and thinking. For some people, the development of creative imagination and thinking is already at a high level, while others need their development.

The study of the creative process allowed G. Wallace to distinguish four stages that make up the creative process:

1) the stage of preparation, the birth of an idea;

2) the stage of maturation, including the concentration of existing knowledge, directly and indirectly related to this problem, obtaining the missing information;

3) the stage of insight, sudden insight, consisting in the intuitive grasp of the desired result;

4) the stage of checking the result and comparing it with the conditions specified in the task.

Currently, there are many methods that contribute to the development of creative abilities, one of which is the "synectics" method, which is based on the comparison of a complex object (process) with a simple one.

Direct analogy (direct comparison of the object under study with well-known objects and processes), personal analogy (a person puts himself in the place of the object under study), symbolic analogy (display of the object in symbolic form), fantastic analogy (comparison of the objects under study with fantastic characters).

G.S. Altshuller developed a theory of creative problem solving, according to which creativity consists of five levels. At the first level, problems are solved by mental enumeration of several solutions without changing the object.

The second level requires a significant enumeration of options and modification of the object. The means of solving problems of the first and second levels belong to the same branch of knowledge.

Tasks of the third level for their solution require the attraction of funds from other areas, as a result of which the object being improved must be seriously changed. Techniques for solving problems of this level have to be sought in related fields of knowledge.

Tasks of the fourth level require a complete change of the object being improved with the involvement of knowledge in the field of science about rare effects and phenomena.

The solution of the problems of the fifth level is achieved by changing the entire system, which includes the object being improved. The number of options approaches infinity, the means of solving problems of this level may go beyond the capabilities of today's science.

65. Development of the imagination

Imagination is not an innate quality of a person, but develops during a person's life, being the basis of any creative activity.

Imagination is characterized by an earlier development compared to other mental processes, and therefore, there is an opinion that children have a better imagination. In fact, children's imagination has only greater brightness, against the backdrop of weak control.

The development of imagination is facilitated by the development of thinking, memory, will, feelings and the whole personality. The first manifestations of imagination are closely connected with the process of perception. This is especially evident in children under one and a half years old, who listen with pleasure to stories about what happened to them during the day, what was perceived and experienced. At the same time, the child clearly understands what is being said. This connection is preserved at the next stage of the child's development, when he begins to process the impressions received, modifying in his imagination the objects perceived earlier: a spoon with porridge turns into an airplane, nettles into crusaders, etc.

The development of the imagination is facilitated by the inclusion of the child in a wide variety of activities, since the process of creating an imaginary image is built from the stock of ideas and knowledge accumulated in the process of life, taken from reality. The richer the human experience, the more material the imagination can have, the more productive its activity will be.

The next stage in the development of the imagination is the mastery of speech, which allows the child to include in the imagination not only specific images, but abstract ideas and concepts. Gradually, the child moves from expressing images of the imagination in activity to expressing images in speech. At this stage, as a result of the development of attention, the child begins to isolate individual parts of the object, to perceive them as independent units that can be operated in the imagination. The creation of imaginary images at this age is characterized by significant distortions of reality, which is associated with a lack of sufficient experience and insufficient critical thinking of the child. The appearance of imaginary images is involuntary, in accordance with the situation in which he is.

The development of arbitrary imagination is connected with the appearance of its active forms. At first, the emergence of active forms of imagination is associated with an inciting initiative on the part of an adult: draw a tree, build a castle, etc. The fulfillment of these tasks is not possible without creating a certain image in the imagination, which is already arbitrary in its essence, as it happens at the will of the child. The use of voluntary imagination, which later takes place without the participation of an adult, is reflected primarily in the game, as the main form of activity of the child. Games acquire a plot, which gradually becomes more complicated, become purposeful.

Each child has imagination, fantasy, but, depending on his individual characteristics, they manifest themselves easier in some children, harder in others, and the control of imagination also differs.

At school age, the productivity of the imagination increases, which is associated both with the need to understand and assimilate educational material, and the constant acquisition of new and versatile ideas about objects and phenomena of the real world, which stimulate the creative activity of the child.

The imagination lends itself well to training. Of great importance for the development of creative imagination are those activities that, without imagination, cannot lead to the desired results: design, drawing, modeling, etc.

66. Imagination exploration

Research on Imagination Productivity consists in the sequential presentation of black and white photographs from the Rorschach test set. At the same time, the subject is asked to give as many interpretations of the depicted as possible, warning that several answers are possible and his own vision of the depicted is important. The time and number of interpretations of each picture-photo is not limited, all associations and the time of interpretation of each picture are fixed. The interpretation procedure stops after the subject can no longer see and say anything new, begins to repeat himself, or himself refuses the experimenter's insistence to see something else like something else.

The processing of the results consists in obtaining a productivity index, which is calculated by the formula:

P=E/ n

P - coefficient of imagination productivity; E - the sum of associations for the pictures of the set; n is the number of photographs from the set that the subject described in this experiment.

When calculating the productivity coefficient, it is recommended to exclude picture No. 5 from the set, because the number of associations for it in the subjects, as a rule, is less than statistically significant.

With "P" equal to 0-2, the level of imagination productivity is considered low, with "P" equal to 3-9 - medium, 10-12 - high, 13 or more - very high.

The productivity of the imagination characterizes the activity of the associative representation process.

The level of productivity can be influenced by the interest of the subject, his general and physical condition. Original images speak of the creative warehouse of the individual. However, with a high frequency of original associations, a constant response only to small details of the image without perceiving it as a whole, and also if the subject saw images corresponding to white spaces in almost all pictures-photographs, he too often named associations with smoke, clouds, etc. etc., he should be advised to contact a psychologist for targeted psychodiagnostics.

The study of individual characteristics of the imagination It is recommended to carry out individually in three stages. At the first stage, the subject is given a white sheet with the outline of a circle depicted in the center, at the second - a triangle, and at the third - a square. In all cases, the subject is asked to use a given geometric figure for 1 min. draw a drawing. The quality of the drawing and how the outline is used is irrelevant.

Results processing includes determining:

1) the level of complexity of imagination (on a special scale) according to the most difficult of the three drawings;

2) the degree of fixation of images and the flexibility of the imagination, which are determined by the number of drawings containing the same plot. The more often the plot is repeated, the stronger the images are fixed, and the flexibility of the imagination is less. When a drawing is repeated three times or a drawing is made inside the contour of a geometric figure, it speaks of the rigidity of the imagination. It can be the result of experienced stresses and affects. People who place all drawings inside the outlines of geometric shapes often have mental illness. They are recommended to apply to a psychological service for a special psychodiagnostic study;

3) the degree of stereotyping of the imagination. The more typical drawings, the higher the stereotype.

An exploration of creative imagination. The subjects are given forms with three, logically unrelated words written on them, and are asked to compose them in 10 minutes. as many sentences as possible so that each includes all three words. Creative imagination involves the creation of an image, a thing, a sign that has no analogues.

67. Image in perception, imagination and thinking

image in perception. Everything that is perceived by a person appears before him in the form of integral images. As a result of the joint work of the sense organs, there is a synthesis of individual sensations into complex complex systems. At the same time, the images received both from one sense organ and within several modalities are combined (perceiving an apple, we combine sensations coming from visual, tactile, taste receptors, adding our knowledge about it to them). Such a combination of isolated sensations turns them into a holistic perception, moving from the reflection of individual features to the reflection of entire objects or situations. Based on sensations, any perceptual image includes a whole range of sensations, since any object or phenomenon has many and different properties, each of which is capable of causing a sensation independently of other properties. However, this is not a simple summation of individual sensations. There is an involvement of previous experience, the processes of understanding what is perceived, i.e., mental processes of an even higher level, such as memory and thinking, are included in the process of perception. Therefore, perception is very often called the human perceptual system.

Imagination images are the product and result of the process of imagination. Imagination images can arise on the basis of viewing photographs, paintings, movies, listening to music, perceiving individual sounds and noises, in accordance with instructions, instructions from another subject, through a description of an event, thing, character, or by association with something. . The emergence of images becomes possible due to the close connection of imagination with other mental processes that have a figurative nature (sensation, perception, memory, ideas, thinking).

Imagination, as well as perception, is based on past experience, and therefore the images of the imagination are always secondary, they are based on objects and phenomena previously experienced, perceived, felt by a person. The work of the imagination consists in transforming experience: its generalization, addition, recombination. At the same time, the new image acquires a different emotional coloring, its scale changes.

Imagination has a close relationship with representation, with which it is related by the visibility or conceivability of images, their relation to any modality (visual, tactile, auditory, etc.).

Unlike images of concepts, judgments, and conclusions, the function of control is significantly reduced for images of the imagination, it is more free, since the imagination is not constrained by the task of assessing the correctness of what our consciousness or subconscious produces. Unlike memory processes, imagination does not necessarily have to accurately reproduce information.

The hallmark of the imagination process is novelty, which is relative. In relation to what is seen, heard, perceived at some point in time or point of view, approach to the interpretation of a person, the image of the imagination is new. Novelty is manifested more in the processes of creation than in the recreative imagination.

Image in thinking. When solving mental problems, the corresponding images, retrieved directly from memory or recreated by the imagination, are mentally transformed in such a way that, as a result, we come to the solution of the problem. As a result of the analytical and synthetic activity of thinking, the original images are decomposed into separate parts and then combined with the formation of new images - ways of thinking.

68. The concept of attention, its functions and forms

Attention - this is one of the cognitive processes of the psyche, characterized by selective orientation, focus on a certain object that is significant for the individual.

Attention involves an increased level of sensory, intellectual, or motor activity.

Attention, unlike other cognitive processes, has no special content. It manifests itself within cognitive processes, characterizing the dynamics of their course.

Attention functions:

1) selection of significant impacts and ignoring side, competing impacts;

2) focus on the object;

3) retention (preservation) in the mind of certain images necessary for cognitive or behavioral activity;

3) regulation and control of activities.

Depending on the direction, the following forms of attention are distinguished:

1) motor - attention directed to movement;

2) sensory - attention directed to perception;

a) auditory;

b) visual;

3) intellectual - attention directed to thinking.

Concentration of attention is facilitated by practical action (taking notes of lectures, books) and the corresponding mental attitude of the individual. Fatigue, painful conditions interfere with concentration. The weakening of voluntary attention is also facilitated by emotional arousal caused by reasons extraneous to the work performed.

Attention disorders include distractibility and absent-mindedness.

Attention distraction - it is the involuntary movement of attention from one object to another. It arises under the action of extraneous irritating firs on a person engaged in some activity at that moment.

Distinguish between external and internal distractibility.

External distractibility occurs under the influence of external stimuli; while voluntary attention becomes involuntary. The most distracting are objects or phenomena that appear suddenly and act with varying force and frequency. The basis of external distractibility of attention is the negative induction of the processes of excitation and inhibition caused by the action of external stimuli that are not related to the activity being performed.

Internal distractibility of attention arises under the influence of strong internal experiences, extraneous emotions, due to a lack of interest and a sense of responsibility for the business that a person is currently busy with. Internal distractibility of attention is due to the appearance in the cerebral cortex of a powerful focus of excitation that occurs during internal experiences.

Absent-mindedness - it is the inability of a person to focus on anything in particular for a long time.

Distinguish between:

1) imaginary;

2) genuine.

Imaginary absent-mindedness It is caused by focusing attention on one object (phenomenon), which leads to a person’s inattention to other objects and phenomena. The basis of imaginary absent-mindedness is a powerful focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex, causing inhibition in the surrounding areas according to the law of negative induction.

Genuine absent-mindedness is the inability to establish and maintain voluntary attention on any object or action. It is explained by the insufficient force of internal braking. Excitation arising from the action of speech signals easily radiates, but is difficult to concentrate. As a result, unstable foci of optimal excitability are created in the cerebral cortex of a distracted person.

The cause of true absent-mindedness can be a general disorder of the nervous system (neurasthenia), brain hypoxia, physical and mental overwork, severe feelings, mental illness.

69. Types of attention

According to the participation of the will of a person in the process of attention, two types of attention are distinguished:

1) involuntary (unintentional);

2) arbitrary (deliberate).

Involuntary attention does not require efforts on the part of a person to focus on the object of attention, it is passive attention. It arises reflexively and independently of the person's conscious intention. Involuntary attention is the primary form in relation to voluntary attention. It is associated with the emotions that the object evokes (emotional attention).

The occurrence of involuntary attention is caused by the following qualities of stimuli:

1) strength - a stronger stimulus attracts more attention;

2) novelty - a new stimulus involuntarily attracts attention;

3) commencement and termination of action;

4) brightness, originality of an object or phenomenon;

5) importance, interestingness of an object or phenomenon.

Involuntary attention can also be caused by the internal state of the body (hunger causes involuntary attention to food, thirst - to water, etc.). It is immediate.

Arbitrary attention for its occurrence requires the participation of the will, it is active attention. It arises consciously when a person sets himself the goal of focusing his attention on some object. This attention is secondary and develops from voluntary attention. It occurs when the object itself does not attract attention and will require effort to focus attention. Arbitrary attention is mediated in nature and is a property of the individual.

The following factors contribute to the focus:

1) a practical action that accompanies voluntary attention (for example, attention when reading is enhanced by taking notes);

2) the absence of extraneous stimuli;

3) the mental state of a person (fatigue and excitement prevent concentration of attention);

4) verbal or mental reminder to oneself;

5) habit.

Sometimes a third type of attention is distinguished - post-voluntary attention. It is characterized by a decrease in willpower. Post-voluntary attention arises as interest grows in work, which at first required active volitional concentration of attention, but then acquired a direct interest for a person. It arises as the third level of attention and is largely determined by the characteristics of the individual, the habit of working.

According to the localization of the object of attention, there are:

1) external attention;

2) inner attention.

External or perceptual attention directed at an object located in the outside world and perceived with the help of analyzers perceptually. It regulates the physical research activities of humans and animals. Without his participation, learning is not possible.

inner attention is characteristic only for a person and is associated with his conscious activity, inner world, self-consciousness. Its object is feelings, thoughts, inner sensations, past experience. Thanks to inner attention, self-understanding, self-awareness, forecasting the future, moral, mental and aesthetic development of the individual are possible. Reduced movements contribute to internal attention: pronouncing individual words, sorting out the rosary, moving the lips, closing the eyes, etc.

Inner and outer consciousness are capable of oppressing each other.

Depending on the forms of activity, there are:

1) collective attention - the concentration of the entire group of people on one subject;

2) group attention - focusing the attention of one of the groups of the team;

3) individual attention - focusing the attention of an individual on his work.

70. Properties of attention

There are the following properties of attention:

1) concentration - the degree of concentration of consciousness on the object. The concentration of attention depends on the number and size of perceived objects: the smaller the number and size of objects of attention, the more concentrated the attention;

2) volume attention - this is the number of objects that are perceived simultaneously. It depends on the characteristics of the perceived objects, on the specifics of human activity, on the purpose of studying the object, on the presence of a semantic connection between objects, on the ability to meaningfully connect and structure the material. The average amount of attention of an adult is 4-6 objects. It is practically unregulated;

3) distribution - the ability to simultaneously perform several actions or monitor several processes, objects. The physiological basis for the distribution of attention is the presence of optimal excitability in certain areas of the cerebral cortex, which causes only partial inhibition in other areas of the cortex, as a result of which it becomes possible to simultaneously control several actions performed. The distribution of attention depends on the experience and complexity of the tasks performed;

4) stability is the general focus of attention in the process of activity. The most essential condition for the stability of attention is the ability to reveal new aspects and connections in the subject on which it is focused. The stability of attention depends on the characteristics of the material, the degree of its difficulty, familiarity with it, the attitude of the subject to it, as well as on the individual characteristics of the individual, the variety of impressions or actions performed, on maintaining interest in them. A prolonged and monotonous action of the same stimulus causes a decrease in the stability of attention due to the fact that, according to the law of negative induction, prolonged excitation of a section of the cerebral cortex causes inhibition in the same area, reducing the stability of attention;

5) distractibility - opposite to stability, expressed in fluctuations in attention - a periodic change in the concentration of attention to a specific object or activity. It depends on the duration of concentration and concentration of attention. The fluctuation of attention is explained by the continuous change of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex. Short fluctuations (1-5 sec.) do not lead to a decrease in the efficiency of the work performed. Long fluctuations (15-20 min) can lead to involuntary distraction from the object;

6) switchability Attention is the ability to consciously and meaningfully move attention from one object to another. Switching attention consists in restructuring attention, in transferring it from one object to another. Switching attention allows a person to quickly navigate in a complex, changing situation. The ease of switching attention in different people is different and depends on the relationship between the previous and subsequent activities and the attitude of the subject to each of them. The more interesting the activity, the easier it is to switch to it, and vice versa. Switching attention is one of the well-trained qualities.

Distinguish:

1) deliberate switching of attention. It occurs with the participation of a person's volitional efforts when changing the nature of activity, when setting new tasks in the conditions of applying new methods of action;

2) not deliberate switching of attention. It usually proceeds easily, without much effort and volitional effort.

Switching attention is characterized by:

1) switching time;

2) the amount of work per unit time during switching;

3) work accuracy when switching.

71. Theories of attention

Wundt's theory of attention. Wundt considers attention as a "fixation point of consciousness", as the clearest field of consciousness. This self-awareness is achieved by passing the content of consciousness into the zone of apperception. Attention, according to W. Wundt, is the result of apperception. Objects that we have already met attract attention more and faster.

Motor theory of attention T. Ribot. As a physiological state, attention includes a complex of vascular, respiratory, motor and other voluntary or involuntary reactions. Intellectual attention, in addition, entails an increase in blood circulation in the organs of the body occupied with thinking. The states of concentration of attention are also accompanied by movements of all parts of the body: face, torso, limbs, which, together with their own organic reactions, act as a necessary condition for maintaining attention at the proper level. Attention is inseparable from movements, is caused by them and can be understood through its connection with motor activity.

Attention as a result of emotion (D. Mill) Attention does not include any peculiar process. A person's attention is attracted by intense and interesting images, phenomena, i.e., attention is always associated with emotions and is caused by them. The brighter the emotional coloring of any object, the more attentively we treat it.

Physiological theory of attention (R. Descartes, E. Muller). Attention is explained by an increase in local irritability of the central nervous system in response to phenomena and objects of particular intensity.

Attention is the result of a special active ability of the spirit (W. James). Attention is a primary, indecomposable mental state, a purely spiritual activity, an expression of the will.

Installation theory (D.N. Uznadze) If a person is given two balls of the same volume, but different in weight, then he will evaluate the weight of other, identical balls differently. The one that ends up in the hand where the lighter ball was before will appear heavier this time, and vice versa, although the two new balls will in fact be the same in all respects. A person who discovers such an illusion has formed a certain attitude towards the perception of the weight of objects. Attention is directly related to human attitudes. Under the influence of experience, an attitude arises in the body that determines its reactions to subsequent influences.

Galperin's theory of attention. Attention is one of the moments of orienting-research activity. Attention as a mental action is aimed at the content of an image, thought, another phenomenon that is currently in the human psyche. Attention performs the function of controlling this content. Attention does not have a separate, special result, but stands out only when the action becomes not only mental, but also reduced. Not all control should be considered as attention. Control only evaluates the action, while attention contributes to its improvement.

Voluntary attention is a form of control carried out according to a predetermined plan, model.

In order to form a new method of voluntary attention, we must, along with the main activity, offer a task to a person to check its progress and results, develop and implement an appropriate plan.

All known acts of attention that perform the function of control, both voluntary and involuntary, are the result of the formation of new mental actions.

Attention theory N.F. Dobrynin. Attention is the direction and concentration of consciousness on certain objects or certain activities while abstracting from everything else.

72. Physiological basis of attention

The physiological basis of attention is the activation of the brain, which is carried out with the participation of the reticular formation. Irritation of the reticular formation causes the appearance of fast electrical oscillations in the cerebral cortex (the phenomenon of desynchronization), increases the mobility of nervous processes, and lowers the thresholds of sensitivity. One of the "starting" mechanisms of the reticular formation is the orienting reflex, which is an innate reaction of the human and animal organism to any change in the environment.

The filtration of stimuli from the environment is carried out by two main sequential groups of mechanisms: peripheral and central.

The first filtering is carried out by peripheral mechanisms, which include the adjustment of the sense organs (reducing the threshold of their sensitivity for weak signals and increasing the threshold for strong ones), stopping or holding the breath at the moments of highest attention.

The irritation received from the sense organs is filtered by the central mechanisms of attention. There is excitation of some nerve centers and inhibition of others. The release of external stimuli and the course of processes in this direction is determined by the strength of the nervous excitation, which primarily depends on the strength of the external stimulus. Weak excitations are suppressed by stronger excitations arising simultaneously with them, which determines the course of mental activity in the appropriate direction.

According to established by Ch. Sherrington the law of induction of nervous processes excitation that occurs in one area of the cerebral cortex causes inhibition in its other areas (simultaneous induction) or is replaced by inhibition of this part of the brain (successive induction). The area in which the excitation occurs is characterized by favorable, optimal conditions for the occurrence of excitation, and therefore, new conditional connections are successfully formed here. When some areas of the brain are excited, the activity of others is not completely inhibited, and therefore, some automatic activity becomes possible. Excitation in the cerebral cortex is constantly moving.

Under the principle of dominance put forward by A.A. Ukhtomsky, it is customary to understand a temporarily dominant focus of excitation, which determines the work of the nerve centers at a given moment and thereby imparts a certain direction to behavior. Accumulating impulses coming from the periphery, the dominants are summed up, suppressing the activity of other centers, due to which the focus of excitation is further enhanced. This explains the long-term intensity of attention. The basis for the emergence of a dominant focus is not only the strength of a given irritation, but also the internal state of the nervous system, due to previous influences and already fixed in the previous experience of nerve connections.

The described laws do not completely reveal the arbitrary nature of attention.

It was revealed that in healthy people under conditions of intense attention, there are changes in the bioelectrical activity in the frontal lobes of the brain. This activity is associated with the work of a special type of neurons located in the frontal regions. The first type of neurons - "novelty detectors" - are activated by the action of new stimuli and reduce activity as they get used to them. In contrast to them, "expectation" neurons are excited only when the organism encounters an object that can satisfy an urgent need. In fact, these cells encoded information about the various properties of objects and, depending on the emerging needs, the body focuses on one or another side of them.

73. Development of attention

The presence of involuntary attention is noted in a child already in the first months of life. At first, the child reacts only to strong external stimuli or in the event of a sharp change in the strength of stimuli, for example, when the temperature changes, when moving from darkness to bright light, with sudden loud sounds, etc.

From the third month, the child begins to be interested in objects surrounding him and closely related to his life. Starting from five to seven months, the child is already able to examine various objects for a long time, taste them, feel them, listen to music, the tone of speech. The attention of the child is attracted mainly by bright, shiny objects or objects associated with nutritional needs (a bottle of milk, a mother) - the first series of stimuli, according to L.S. Vygodsky. This indicates a fairly good development of his involuntary attention. Another series of stimuli is the speech of an adult, the words he utters, which initially act as stimuli-directives that direct the involuntary attention of the child.

The appearance of signs of voluntary attention is noted by the end of the first - the beginning of the second year of life. It arises due to the fact that the people surrounding the child begin to direct the attention of the child with the help of a number of stimuli and means, to direct his attention, to subordinate him to their will, and thereby put in the hands of the child the means by which he himself later masters his attention. And this begins to happen in the process of mastering the child's speech.

Mastering speech, the child begins to control the primary processes of his own attention, which are initially directed to other people, orienting their attention with the word addressed to them in the right direction, and then to himself.

For the development of voluntary attention, play is important, during which the child learns to coordinate his movements in accordance with the tasks of the game and direct his actions in accordance with its rules. Conversations with parents, walks with them, games in which children imitate adults, acquaintance with more and more objects and phenomena, the gradual formation of the ability to understand the simplest relationships, constant manipulation of toys and other objects - all this contributes to the development of the interests and attention of the child. .

The voluntary attention of a preschooler is quite unstable, emotionally, he is easily distracted by extraneous stimuli. Involuntary attention, on the contrary, is quite stable, long-lasting and concentrated. The ability to control voluntary attention is formed gradually in the process of exercises and volitional efforts.

Significant changes in the development of attention occur when entering school. During this period, there is an intensive development of all its properties. The volume of attention increases especially sharply, its stability increases, skills of switching and distribution develop. The child learns to discipline, begins to control his behavior.

Attention can and should be developed through training. However, different properties of attention can be trained to different degrees. The worst thing to train is attention span. The success of attention training is largely determined by the individual characteristics of the individual. It is especially difficult to develop attention in people with an inert and weak nervous system.

High school students already have quite well developed voluntary attention and are able to control their behavior. However, physiological changes occurring in the body of a teenager contribute to increased fatigue and irritability, which can lead to a decrease in attention characteristics.

74. Learning attention

The study of selectivity of attention. The subject is presented with a test form with letters and words printed in it, line by line, letters and words (words do not overlap). Previously, the subject is asked to find and underline the words in it as quickly as possible, trying not to miss a single word. The execution time of the task is fixed by a stopwatch.

Line example: baujuerjoywuftspshgtsprokurorgcrseabesteoriyaen

task completion time and the number of errors and omissions in finding and underlining words (there are 25 in total) are indicators of attention selectivity. The results are evaluated using a rating scale in which points are awarded depending on the time spent searching for words. For each missing word, one point is reduced.

The level of selectivity of attention is assessed as low - from 0 to 6 points (from 190 to 250 seconds or more), as average - from 7 to 13 points (from 120 to 189 seconds), as high - from 14 to 19 points (from 60 to 119 s.) and as very high at 20 points (less than 60 s.).

The reasons for weak selectivity can be: a state of strong emotional experience, external interference that led to the frustration of the subject, a hidden unwillingness to be tested, etc.

Attention switch research The subject is presented with a modified Schulte digital table, in 49 squares (5x5 cm) of which black and red numbers are placed in a random combination that excludes the possibility of memorization. The cells are arranged in rows 7 - horizontally and 7 - vertically.

The study is carried out in three stages, which follow each other:

1) the subject is offered to name and indicate black numbers in ascending order as quickly as possible;

2) the subject is offered to name and indicate as quickly as possible - red numbers in descending order;

3) the subject must name and indicate either black or red numbers alternately, and black, as in the first series, should be named in ascending order, and red in descending order.

The time is recorded by a stopwatch and recorded in the protocol. The table is presented each time at the signal "Start!", so that the subject does not look in advance for the location of the corresponding numbers.

If the subject makes a mistake, he must find the mistake himself. The stopwatch does not turn off.

Between stages make a break of 3-4 minutes to rest the subject.

In the course of processing the results, a graph of the time spent on the implementation of the three series of the study is made.

The switching time indicator "T" is calculated by the formula.

T \u3d T1 - (T2 + TXNUMX),

where T1 is the time spent by the subject at the first stage; T2 - time spent on the second stage; T3 - time spent on the third stage.

The level of attention switching is considered high if the attention switching time was less than 90 s. (1-2 rank), medium - at the level of switching attention from 91 to 200 s. (ranks 3-7), low - with an attention switching time of more than 201 s. (8-9 rank).

If the subject completed the tasks in the first or second series in less than 33 seconds, the final indicator is increased by raising the rank by one or two. If in the first or second series the subject spent more than 60 seconds searching for numbers, then the rank sign increases by 1 or 2, that is, the switching level is determined as lower.

When the switching time is less than or equal to "0", the experiment is repeated. This means that the subject did not accept the instructions in the first or second series.

Analyzing the results, be sure to pay attention to the specifics of the subject's search for numbers, the features of getting out of difficulties when the subject, for some reason, cannot immediately find the number.

75. Speech and its functions

Speech is a combination of spoken and perceived sounds.

Speech is the main means of human communication, with the help of which a person receives and transmits a large amount of information, in particular, one that carries a large semantic load or captures in itself what cannot be perceived with the help of the senses (abstract concepts, not directly perceived phenomena, laws , rules, etc.). Speech also contributes to the transmission of experience in time (between generations) and space (through writing). This gives a person the opportunity not to be limited by personal experience, it is enriched by the experience of other people, and to a much greater extent than observation and other processes of non-verbal, direct cognition, carried out through the senses: perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking.

Speech and language are different concepts.

Tongue - this is a historically established system of conventional signs, with the help of which combinations of sounds are transmitted that have certain meaning and meaning for people, which develops relatively independently of a person, according to laws that are not related either to his psychology or his behavior and reflects the psychology of the people.

Speech - it is the psychological process of the formation and transmission of thought by means of language. Speech without language acquisition is impossible.

Language and speech are connected by a word, which is expressed both in units of language and in units of speech. The meaning of a word is a generalized reflection of the subject content. The bearer of meaning is a sensory image given in perception or representation - auditory (sound), visual (graphic), etc.

Speech is characterized by the presence of meaning, which is expressed in those purely personal thoughts, feelings, images, associations that this word evokes in this particular person.

Of great importance in the functioning of speech are intonations, which are transmitted on the basis of voice modulation and semantic stresses.

Speech levels:

1) speech perception is the analysis and synthesis of the material means of the language (words and phrases, intonations, etc.);

2) understanding of speech is the analysis and synthesis of the semantic meanings of the material means of the language.

Speech properties:

1) content is the number of thoughts, feelings and aspirations, needs expressed in speech, their significance and correspondence to reality;

2) comprehensibility is the correct construction of sentences using pauses in appropriate places or highlighting words with the help of logical stress;

3) expressiveness is its emotional richness, richness of language means, their diversity;

4) effectiveness is a property of speech, which consists in its influence on the thoughts, feelings and will of other people, on their beliefs and behavior.

Speech functions:

1) the function of generalization is connected with the fact that the word about denotes not only a separate, given object, but a whole group of similar objects and is always the bearer of their essential features;

2) the function of influence lies in the ability of a person through speech to induce people to certain actions or to refuse them;

3) the function of the message is to exchange information (thoughts) between people through words, phrases;

4) the function of expression lies in the fact that, on the one hand, thanks to speech, a person can more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships, and, on the other hand, the expressiveness of speech, its emotionality significantly expand the possibilities of communication;

5) the function of designation consists in the ability of a person through speech to give objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality names inherent only to them.

planning function - speech helps a person plan his actions.

76. Study of speech

The study of the rigidity of written speech can be done individually or in a group. At the same time, each subject is given a picture of a landscape and asked to write an essay on it with a size of 300 words or a little more. There is no time limit for writing an essay.

Processing of the results consists in calculating the value of the rigidity of the written speech of the subject for each hundred words of his composition by counting all repeated words (including conjunctions), as well as words that have a common root.

When analyzing the results, the absolute number of repetitions (rigidity index) or the repetition coefficient "Kp" is taken into account:

Kp \uXNUMXd P / n,

where P is the number of words repeated in a hundred words, n is the total number of words.

The degree of rigidity is considered low with a repetition of 0-3, 0-6, 0-8 words in the first, second and third hundred, respectively, small with a repetition of 4-7, 7-9, 9-11 words, medium with 8-9, 10 -11, 12-13 words, high with a repetition of more than 10, 12, 14 words.

The reasons for rigidity can be: a small speech reserve, poor health of the subject, low intelligence, etc.

Study of the rate of oral speech activity is carried out individually, while the subject is offered a standard meaningless text for reading, printed on a small form: A and 28 I 478 TCM 214 b! yu? \u734819d 000756 noson romor thieves iushchtsfh 11 koton rorrrr 3 + 12 \u15d 5 24:7 \u23d XNUMX: XNUMX \uXNUMXd XNUMX M + A = ma ma = ma! mom = dad porridge + sha = ka.

The text must be read as quickly as possible and without errors. The experimenter uses a stopwatch to record the time of reading the text and possible errors.

The pace of reading is considered low when reading the text for 56-60 seconds, average at 46-55 seconds, good at 41-45 seconds, high at 40 seconds. and less. When errors are made, the rank of the reading tempo is reduced by dropping one line down.

When interpreting the results, one should take into account what type of activity the subject is engaged in and his temperament. For example, teachers, lecturers, orators, philologists, people of choleric temperament usually have a high rate of speech activity. In phlegmatic and melancholic people - low. The speed of reading a text can also be affected by well-being and the mood for testing.

Study of egotism (a person's desire to talk about himself) of a dialogue speech is carried out in the presence of an assistant, with whom the subject is asked to talk on any topic. For the convenience of processing the results, the conversation can be recorded on a tape recorder. The experimenter records the total number of sentences spoken by the subject, and sentences in which the subject spoke about himself or his relatives, as well as animals or objects, emphasizing their belonging to his own person. The procedure ends when the total number of proposals reaches one hundred.

Processing Results consists in calculating the coefficient of egotism "Ke" according to the formula:

K e \uXNUMXd C o / C e,

where Co is the total number of sentences spoken by the subjects during a conversation with a partner; Se - the number of sentences of an egoic nature.

The level of egotism is considered high at Ke equal to 0,41 - 1, average at Keravny 0,11-0,40, low at Ke equal to 0,10.

The study of verbal egotism makes it possible to evaluate a personality from the point of view of its altruistic-egoistic orientation. A high level of egotism indicates the egocentricity of the individual, the person's concern for his person and the attention paid to his Ego.

To assess whether egotism is a phenomenon provoked by a particular conversation, the personality of the assistant, or whether it really speaks of the egocentric orientation of the personality, it is necessary to take into account the topic chosen for the conversation and the attitude of the interlocutors to each other.

77. The problem of personality in psychology

Personality is a multifaceted concept that includes the following general provisions:

1) the concept of "personality" includes a set of individual, specific characteristics of a person that distinguish him from other people, that is, a person is always characterized by individuality;

2) personality is a unique form of human social existence - individual personality traits are socially significant and are formed in the processes of socialization and interaction with other people;

3) a personality is a single entity that has a stable structure consisting of hierarchically linked individual personality traits;

4) personality is a dynamic structure capable of developing and self-organizing, constantly interacting with the social environment.

5) the personality is the connecting link of all mental activity, causing its continuity, continuity and expediency.

In this way, personality - this is a person in the aggregate of his stable socially conditioned individual mental characteristics, which constitute a single system capable of developing and organizing itself in interaction with other individuals and society.

The concept of personality is closely related to the concepts of "man", "individual", and "individuality".

Human - this is a general concept that reflects the integrity of a human being, the unity of its most diverse life functions and manifestations, and is used to characterize the universal qualities and abilities inherent in all people.

Individual - this is a specific representative of the human race, the bearer of all the psychophysical and social features of mankind. An individual is both a newborn and an adult who is also a person.

The individual has both general characteristics, such as the integrity of the psychophysical organization, stability in interaction with the outside world and activity, and individual qualities and their combination that distinguish him from other individuals (emotionality, sensitivity, rationality, etc.).

In the process of human development, there was a transition from the stage of ontogenesis, when natural and biological factors were decisive in human life, to the stage of sociogenesis, when a person begins to develop on the basis of social activity and relationships.

Initially, man developed as a herd animal, a tribal creature. The emergence and development of society, the inclusion of social factors contributed to the isolation of individuals, the beginning of the formation of personality.

In the process of human ontogenesis, a similar process takes place. A newborn baby is not a person. This is a biological creature that has the abilities of the genus homo sapiens: a body configuration that implies upright posture, a brain structure that provides the possibility of developing intelligence, a hand structure that gives the possibility of using tools in the future, and other natural prerequisites for the development of human qualities. In the process of development and assimilation of the social experience of mankind, the child becomes individualized, becomes an individual. Personality formation occurs through the acquisition of a special social quality, inclusion in the system of social relationships and processes in which the individual acts as a subject - the carrier of consciousness, which is formed and develops in the process of activity.

An individual who has reached the level of personality is able to act indirectly, that is, to subordinate lower motives to higher ones, to overcome immediate urges. It is relatively independent of external influences and behaves in accordance with its own goals and intentions.

78. Theories of personality

Psychoanalytic theories of personality. According to Freud, personality consists of three levels (substructures):

1) Id or IT;

2) Ego or I;

3) Super-Ego or Super-I.

Only the Super-I is under the control of consciousness. It represents the laws of society and morality. The super-ego is formed in the course of a person's life under the influence of the traditions and laws of the society in which the person lives. The ego or self is partly conscious, partly subconscious. This is an innate substructure of the psyche, which decreases over the course of life, limiting itself to the size of the body. The ego is the learned individual mechanisms of behavior. At this level, there is a constant conflict between the Super-I and IT, which is located in the subconscious and represents the innate instincts and needs of the body.

Subconscious (IT) strong motives and needs (libido and aggression) strive for satisfaction. Human consciousness (Super-I) limits these aspirations. There is a conflict of personality, which under certain conditions leads to its neuroticism. The role of the Ego (I) is reduced to the harmonization of this conflict, to its resolution.

A feature of Freud's personal concept is its focus on the past. Freud considered manifestation of unconscious motives: free associations, slips of the tongue, neurotic symptoms, pain problems.

K. Jung introduced the concept of the collective unconscious and its primary formation (archetype). He created a typology of personality, which is based on the focus of a person on himself (introverts) or on an object (extroverts).

A. Adler considered the basis not of natural instincts, but of an innate social feeling.

Behavioral theories of personality. The activity of the individual is explained by "drive" (urge). Reducing tension, anxiety, preserving oneself as a person is the main principle of behavior. "Law of Affect" L. Thorndike - the basic law of behavior, which consists in strengthening the response to a stimulus when reinforced (money, respect, approval, etc.). Behaviorists identify the three most studied personality characteristics:

1) anxiety - a person's "tuning" to greater sensitivity to life-threatening situations;

2) conflict - the struggle of two tendencies;

3) frustration.

Cognitive personality theory assigns the main role in determining the social behavior of the individual to cognitive elements (beliefs, values, intentions, etc.). The main stimulus for behavior is immediate assessments and judgments. A large role is given to self-regulation and the deterministic (causal) situation of even higher forms of behavior that a person can consciously regulate.

humanistic theory considers personality as a product of life in society, the assimilation of social forms of behavior and the development of human experience. The core of personality is its self-esteem and self-actualization. Human behavior is explained by the presence of innate humanistic, altruistic needs. Creative self-realization is the basis for the formation of personality.

Domestic theories of personality. According to S.L. Rubinshtein, personality has a complex multi-level structure. It is internally determined by the external circumstances of life.

According to Vygotsky, the main driver of personality development is the discrepancy or contradiction between the operational and technical capabilities of a person and the development of his motivational needs sphere.

A.N. Leontiev assigned a central place in the structure of personality to activity. The motivational sphere and "personal" meaning are the main internal characteristics of the personality, which determine the relation of the purpose of the action to the motive.

79. Man and culture

There are two stages in human development: biological and cultural. The biological development of a person and his psyche does not differ significantly from similar processes in an animal. Man, like other representatives of biological species, is endowed with natural innate mental functions that ensure the implementation of the adaptive capabilities of his body.

But unlike animals, in the course of cultural development, a system of more complex socially conditioned and formed in the process of life higher mental functions has been formed in humans, which reflect the sociocultural history of both an individual subject and the entire human community. These higher functions are formed only in the processes of social interaction, learning and communication and differ from the lower functions inherent in animals by their properties, structure and origin. They are arbitrary, mediated and social.

The highest forms of human thinking, imagination, are derived from culture and develop under the influence of social experience. Thinking, as one of the highest functions of the human psyche, does not exist outside of society, outside of language, outside of the knowledge accumulated by mankind and the methods of mental activity developed by it: logical, mathematical, etc. actions and operations. Only having mastered the language, logic, concepts, a person becomes the subject of thinking.

The evolution of the human mental organization has led to a fundamental change in his relationship with the environment. Man, unlike other biological species, not only adapts to the conditions of existence, but also begins to actively modify the natural environment. This becomes possible due to the use by man of tools, which are a prerequisite for the development of material production. In addition to material tools of labor, a person invents "psychological tools" in the form of words, signs, symbols, which were a prerequisite for the development of a new world - the world of culture. For its appearance, qualitative changes should have occurred in the human psyche: the appearance of a new structure of memorization, thinking, and imagination should have developed, without the participation of which no creativity is possible.

The development of culture, in turn, contributes to the development of man. His needs, the spiritual world are changing, new knowledge is accumulating, the sphere of external management relations (order - submission) is changing, the opportunity is born to "order" oneself: to independently control one's own behavior. Management of the psyche from an interpersonal (interpsychic) process, when the functions of the orderer and the performer are divided between the participants in social interaction, passes into the intrapersonal plan and turns into a relationship with oneself, becoming intrapsychic. We can observe this transformation in the development of the child. It is called internalization.

The concept of culture is understood as the way of life of the people living in a certain territory, its history and its vision, religious beliefs, mores, customs and traditions, methods of production and interaction with nature, various social institutions, styles of thinking, stereotypes of interpersonal behavior and features of self-expression, language , as well as a means of transferring life experience through generations.

People living on different continents, in different communities, are driven by the same needs, which, however, lead to the creation of an individual and original world - the world of culture of a given people. The world of culture, being a product of human activity, does not oppose the world of nature, but, on the contrary, interacts with it, is fed from it.

80. The structure of personality in various psychological theories

In various areas of foreign and domestic psychology, their own approaches to the structuring of personality have been developed.

According to the dynamic, functional theory of personality K.K. Platonov, the personality structure consists of four adjacent substructures:

1) substructure of orientation and personality relations;

2) substructure of experience, which includes knowledge, skills, abilities, habits;

3) individual characteristics of individual mental processes;

4) typological, age, sexual properties of the personality, i.e. biopsychic.

Platonov also identifies substructures of character and abilities as superimposed on four main substructures.

According to theory A.G. Kovaleva personality structure includes:

1) orientation (system of needs, interests, ideals),

2) abilities (an ensemble of intellectual, volitional and emotional properties),

3) character (synthesis of relations and ways of behavior),

4) temperament (system of natural properties).

Integral individuality theory B.C. Merlin describes two groups of individual characteristics:

1) "properties of the individual" - includes two substructures:

a) temperament;

b) individual qualitative features of mental processes.

2) "properties of individuality" - has three substructures:

a) motives and attitudes;

b) character;

c) ability.

Activity is a mediating link between all substructures of personality.

On B.G. Ananiev personality structure is built from:

1) the primary class of personality traits:

a) with tattoos;

b) roles;

c) value orientations;

2) secondary class of personality traits:

a) motivation of behavior,

b) the structure of social behavior,

c) consciousness, etc.

Personality structure according to 3. Freud It comprises:

1) Id - located in the unconscious layer of the psyche and is the energy basis of the personality, it contains innate unconscious instincts;

2) Ego - an innate substructure of the personality, located in consciousness and in preconsciousness;

3) Super-It - is formed in the process of life, located in the mind.

Between these three personality structures there is an unstable balance, since not only their content, but also the directions of their development are opposite to each other.

On K.G. Jung personality structure consists of: Ego, personal unconscious and its complexes, collective unconscious and its archetypes, persona, anima, animus and shadow.

trait theory G. Allport identifies the following types of traits (neuropsychic structures):

1) personality traits (or common features):

a) cardinal - determine almost all human actions;

b) central - bright characteristics of individuality;

c) secondary - limited in manifestation, less stable, less generalized;

2) personal dispositions (individual traits) - the characteristics of an individual that make a person unique.

All personality traits are in certain relationships, but relatively independent of each other.

Cattell highlights hypothetical mental structures - personality traits:

1) superficial features - behavioral characteristics of a person accompanying each other, do not have a single basis and are inconsistent;

2) initial features - some combined quantities or factors that determine the constancy of human behavior and are "blocks of the personality building", there are 16 of them in total.

Initial features combine:

1) by origin:

a) constitutional features;

b) acquired traits;

2) by modality:

a) ability traits;

b) traits of temperament;

c) dynamic features.

On J.P. Guildford personality structure consists of:

1) areas of ability;

2) spheres of temperament;

3) harmonic sphere;

4) class of pathology parameters.

Each of these components includes separate features.

81. Typologies of personality

Typologies of personality according to I.P. Pavlov. The typology is based on the degree of participation of the first and second signal systems in the perception of the world and the organization of human activity.

I.P. Pavlov identified the following personality types:

1) artistic type characterized by the predominance of the first signaling system of the right hemisphere of the brain. Personalities of this type have high emotionality, developed imaginative thinking, vividness of imagination, immediacy and liveliness of perception of the realities of the surrounding world. They are prone to various types of art, to poetry, music, theater, literature. Romanticism in this type of personality prevails over skepticism;

2) thinking type - the activity of the second signaling system of the left hemisphere of the brain prevails over the first. Personalities of this type are prone to a detailed analysis of life situations and phenomena, they are very reasonable, prone to abstract, abstract-logical thinking. They are characterized by general restraint, moderation of feelings, which are refracted and actively controlled by the mind. Thinking type people are inclined to scientific activity, especially in the field of exact sciences: mathematics, physics, computer science, etc.;

3) medium type includes 80% of people, is characterized by a slight predominance of the rational or emotional component of the psyche.

Typological features begin to appear in adolescence.

Typology of personality according to K.G. Jung is based on:

1) the predominance of a certain attitude of consciousness in the mental activity of the individual:

a) introversion - mental activity is aimed at the phenomena and contents of the inner world of the subject of his thoughts, fantasies, experiences. An introvert is a person turned inward, listening to the "inner voice", leading an intense inner life and showing little interest in the environment. The behavior of an introvert is controlled to a greater extent by the internal motivation of the subject and practically does not depend on external circumstances;

b) extraversion - a predominant orientation outward, towards an object: dependence on it or an increased interest in it. An extrovert is more turned to the world of external phenomena and events. He tends to obey the "objective" external demands or the "pull" of the object.

Introversion or extroversion mean only the predominant orientation of consciousness. Introversion and extraversion are observed in the soul of any person and naturally replace and complement each other in the natural life process;

2) dominance of one of the main mental functions: thinking, feeling, sensation or intuition. One of the functions is dominant, the other turns out to be subordinate and auxiliary, two more remain undifferentiated (undeveloped) and operate mainly at the unconscious level.

K.G. Jungidentified eight types:

1) thinking introvert;

2) emotional introvert;

3) sensory introvert;

4) intuitive introvert;

5) mental extrovert;

6) emotional extrovert;

7) sensory extrovert;

8) intuitive extrovert.

Typology of personality according to E. Sprangeru is based on the predominance of one of the six universal value orientations:

1) the theoretical main thing - "truth";

2) economic - benefit and benefit;

3) aesthetic - perfect form and harmony;

4) social - love and recognition of people;

5) political - power;

6) religious - God and soul.

These values are inherent in all people and are pivotal in human life. Different people have one or another combination of the following values, with the predominance of any one of them.

82. Activity and personality

The concepts of activity and personality have broad connections. In the process of activity, the formation and development of the personality takes place, whether it is a game, communication or work. Activity is always carried out in a certain system of relations of one individual with society and other individuals. It requires the help and participation of other people. The results of activities have a certain impact on the world around, on the life and fate of other people, who are specific individuals. The activity of the personality always finds its expression not only in relation to things, but also in relation to other people. The activities of full-fledged mature individuals are characterized by moral and physical mutual support in work, collectivism, and labor enthusiasm.

The personality of a person not only develops in activity, but also manifests itself in it. Thus, the joint socially useful activity of a friendly, organized team develops a person's collectivism, organization, the ability to connect their interests with the interests of the team. The basis of the developed by A.S. Makarenko's theory and practice of educational work, the leading influence of activity on the formation of personality was assumed. The whole life of the team of his pupils was organized on the basis of the inclusion of all children in various activities that require the manifestation of certain personality traits (purposefulness, discipline, courage, honesty, responsibility, perseverance). For example, night trips and vigils organized by Makarenko to protect the colony from thieves and ill-wishers required the children to overcome fear, to show restraint and self-control. Gradually, the habit of bold behavior developed. The common activities of the colonists contributed to the development of a sense of comradeship, mutual understanding and trust among the children.

The development of various activities, and at the same time the personality of a person, is a complex and lengthy process.

In an infant, activity is limited to several simple innate reactions - defensive (pupil constriction in bright light or loud sound, screaming and restlessness in pain), food (sucking), labyrinth (calm down when swaying) and somewhat later - orienting-exploratory (turning the head to stimulus, object tracking, etc.). The first conditioned reflexes begin to form in an infant from the eleventh to twelfth day. On the basis of conditioned reflexes, during the first year of life, exploratory behavior develops (grasping, examining, manipulating), with the help of which the child accumulates information about the properties of objects in the outside world and masters the coordination of movements. Under the influence of learning and imitation, from the age of one, the child begins to form practical behavior that helps him master human ways of using things and their purpose. From the first days of life, the child begins to communicate with people, to master communicative behavior, which helps him achieve the satisfaction of his needs and desires. The child begins to master various activities: communication, play, learning, work. Gradually, in the course of development, under the influence of upbringing and training, the child's activity takes on conscious, purposeful forms, discipline and organization are developed.

Activity contributes to the development of various mental processes of the child: perception, imagination, memory, thinking. On their basis, in the process of socialization, the development of individual human properties takes place, the formation of temperament, character and abilities that make up the structure of the personality takes place.

83. Personal socialization

Personality socialization - it is the process of assimilation and active reproduction in communication and activity of social experience.

It is understood that a person (child) is initially antisocial or his sociality is reduced to the need for communication. In the process of socialization, the initially asocial subject is transformed into a social personality, who owns the models of behavior accepted in society, who has adopted social norms and roles. The norms of behavior and morality, assimilated by a person, depend on the society in which he lives.

In the process of socialization, the psychological development of the individual takes place, associated with the formation of education, upbringing, training, the emergence and development of basic socially significant properties and socio-psychological properties that are found in direct contact with the social environment.

Socialization has a systemic character due to the fact that the individual, small and large groups, society and humanity as a whole are in complex hierarchical-systemic relations with each other.

Socialization factors:

1) material, psychologically significant factors of the social environment that accompany a person all his life (political, economic, housing, financial, household and other factors) and due to the characteristics prevailing in the human communication environment. These factors are always peculiar to each individual;

2) socio-psychological factors of the social environment - these are the psychological characteristics of people who constantly surround a person in life (family members, friends, classmates, etc.). However, sometimes casual short-term contacts with people have a stronger influence on the individual than constant contacts. A person experiences especially strong socio-psychological influences when receiving an education aimed at helping him in socialization;

3) the factor of a person's own social activity.

Stages of socialization:

1) the stage of primary socialization - lasts from birth to adolescence, when the child learns social experience uncritically, adapts, adapts, imitates. Occurs in small social groups. The main agents of socialization are parents, relatives, family friends, etc. (primary agents of socialization);

2) the stage of individualization - observed in adolescence and youth, occurs in large social groups and is manifested by a desire to distinguish oneself from others, a critical attitude towards social norms of behavior. Secondary agents are added to the primary agents of socialization: formal organizations, official institutions, and government representatives. In adolescence, the stage of individualization is characterized by the self-determination of the concept of "the world and I", the instability of the worldview and character of the teenager. In adolescence, stable personality traits are developed;

3) the stage of integration is observed in late adolescence, when there is a desire to find one's place in society. Integration proceeds successfully if the properties of a person are accepted by a group, society. If not accepted, the following outcomes are possible:

a) maintaining one's dissimilarity and the emergence of aggressive interactions (relationships) with people and society;

b) changing oneself;

c) conformism, external conciliation, adaptation;

4) the labor stage of socialization lasts the entire period of a person's labor activity, when he not only assimilates social experience, but also reproduces it;

5) the post-labor stage of socialization begins with retirement, is characterized by the reproduction of social experience, in the process of transferring it to new generations.

84. The concept of adaptation

Adaptation - the process of adaptation and effective interaction of the organism with the environment.

The process of adaptation is carried out at the biological, psychological and social levels.

Process biological adaptation is observed when significant changes occur in the "organism-environment" system, and ensures the formation of a new homeostatic state, which allows achieving the maximum efficiency of physiological functions and behavioral reactions. The organism and the environment are in dynamic equilibrium, their ratios are constantly changing, and the process of adaptation must also be constantly carried out.

At the psychological level, the process of adaptation occurs on the basis of successful decision-making, anticipation of the development of events, the results of actions.

Mental adaptation - it is a dynamic process of establishing the optimal correspondence between the individual and the environment during the implementation of human activity, allowing the individual to satisfy actual needs and realize the significant goals associated with them.

Mental adaptation includes two more aspects:

1) optimization of the constant impact of the individual with the environment;

2) establishing an adequate correspondence between mental and physiological characteristics.

Mental adaptation is considered as the result of the activity of an integral self-governing system (at the level of "operational rest"), while emphasizing its systemic organization.

J. Piaget considered adaptation as one of the main processes of the intellectual development of the child. As components of adaptation, he distinguished accommodation (restructuring of the mechanisms of mental activity in order to assimilate new information) and assimilation (assignment of an external event and its transformation into a mental one).

Social adaptation - it is a process of effective adaptation and interaction of the individual with the social environment.

Social adaptation is characterized by:

1) adequate perception of the surrounding reality and one's own organism;

2) an adequate system of relations and communication with others; ability to work, study, organize leisure and recreation;

3) variability (adaptability) of behavior in accordance with the role expectations of others.

Socio-psychological adaptation - this is the process of the relationship between the individual and the social environment, in which the individual is productively included in the leading activity, satisfies the basic sociogenic needs.

Mechanisms of socio-psychological adaptation:

1) social imagination - the ability to understand one's experience and determine one's destiny, mentally placing oneself within the real framework of a given period of development of society, and to realize one's capabilities;

2) social intelligence - the ability to perceive and capture false relationships and dependencies in the social environment;

3) realistic orientation of consciousness;

4) orientation to what is due.

Adaptation can also be carried out with the help of protective mechanisms:

1) denial (ignoring traumatic information);

regression (stereotyping, return to ontogenetic earlier infantile forms of behavior);

2) repression (unconscious suppression of a negative mental state by elimination from consciousness and transfer to the unconscious);

3) suppression (elimination of painful events on the basis of consciousness);

4) rationalization (overcoming negative mental states by justifying certain actions);

5) sublimation (conversion of the energy of instinctive drives into socially acceptable ways of activity), etc.

If the protective mechanisms of adaptation fail, a phenomenon is observed maladaptation, the result of which is a violation of interaction with the environment.

85. Formation and development of personality according to the theory of E. Erickson

The psychosocial concept of personality development by E. Erickson is the most developed of all theories. It proceeds from the principle of genetic predetermination of the stages that a person necessarily goes through in his personal development in the course of his life, acquiring not only positive, but also negative qualities.

He identified eight stages of personality development:

1) childhood (from birth to 1 year). At this stage, the development of the child is more dependent on the mother, who feeds, soothes, gives affection, care, forming the child's trust in people, in the world. With a bad attitude of the mother towards the child or the absence of the mother, distrust of the world develops, stable pessimism;

2) late infancy (from 1 year to 3 years) - the formation of autonomy and independence, the child begins to walk, learns to control his departures. Children begin to explore their surroundings and interact with them more independently. Locomotor skills appear (self-dressing, feeding), the attitude "I myself" appears. During this period, the skills of neatness, accuracy are developed, a sense of shame is formed. The child begins to understand the possibility of punishment. With excessive guardianship, a child develops a feeling of doubt in his abilities, with frequent punishment - an exaggerated sense of shame and resentment;

3) early childhood (from 3 to 5 years) - there is a formation of a sense of curiosity, enterprise, initiative, which is laid in the child's game. Lively imagination, interest, study of the world around develops. In the process of the game, the will, memory, thinking of the child develops. With the restriction of the child's activity, his initiative, frequent punishments, the child develops passivity, indifference, lethargy, lack of initiative, an exaggerated sense of guilt;

4) middle childhood (from 5 to 11 years old) is characterized by the development of a sense of diligence, the development of elementary cultural skills, schooling begins. The desire to achieve success, communication skills is formed, logical thinking and self-discipline develop. At this stage, there may be a feeling of inferiority or incompetence with doubts about one's abilities, a discrepancy between race or socioeconomic status that is common among peers;

5) puberty (from 12 to 20 years) is a period of self-determination in life, planning for the future, choosing a profession, actively searching for oneself and one's role. At this stage, almost all adolescents suffer from a conflict specific to this age, experience a sense of their helplessness, mental discord and aimlessness, which is manifested by a confusion of roles, moral and worldview attitudes;

6) early adulthood (from 20 to 25 years old) is focused on getting a profession and "arranging" their lives, intimate relationships with another person, both socially and sexually and spiritually. Violations at this stage are manifested in excessive self-absorption, inability to establish calm and trusting personal relationships, which leads to a feeling of loneliness, social isolation;

7) adulthood (from 26 to 64 years old) - characterized by active work, creating a family, raising children. At this stage, a choice is made between productivity and inertia.

8) late in adulthood (from 65 years to death) is characterized by

review and reassessment of one's life path, achievements and not

good luck. Perhaps the acceptance of life as such and the feeling of the fullness and usefulness of life and despair, the feeling of a life lived in vain.

86. Personality research

The study of masculinity-femininity of personality is carried out using a questionnaire consisting of 60 statements (qualities), to each of which the subject answers "yes" or "no", thereby assessing the presence or absence of the named qualities. The questionnaire can also be used in the form of an expert rating. In this case, the assessment of the subject according to the presented qualities is carried out by people who know the subject well (husband, wife, parents, etc.).

Processing of the results consists in counting the matches of the answer with the key, one point is awarded for each match. Then the indicators of femininity (F) and masculinity (M) are determined in accordance with the following formulas:

F=?f/20,

M = ? m /20,

where ?f is the sum of points for femininity; ?m - the sum of points for masculinity The main index IS or the indicator of androgyny is defined as:

IS=(FM)/2,322

If the IS index is less than -1, then a conclusion is made about masculinity. At the same time, in the case when IS is less than -2,025, they speak of pronounced masculinity. Such people are characterized by independence, assertiveness, dominance, aggressiveness, risk taking, independence, self-confidence, great self-esteem in general, as well as higher self-esteem in the field of academic achievements and their own appearance - the physical self.

If the IS index is greater than +1, then they speak of femininity, if IS is greater than +2,025, they speak of pronounced femininity. Such people are characterized by pliability, gentleness, sensitivity, shyness, tenderness, cordiality, the ability to sympathize, empathy, etc.

With IS ranging from -1 to +1, he concludes that he is androgynous. In such people, the features of femininity and masculinity are presented harmoniously and complementary. At the same time, greater softness, stability in social contacts and the absence of pronounced dominant-aggressive tendencies in communication are in no way associated with a decrease in self-confidence, but, on the contrary, manifest themselves against the background of maintaining high self-esteem, self-confidence and self-acceptance. Androgynes are not inferior to the masculine type neither in terms of self-esteem in general, nor in terms of self-esteem.

The study of the level of claims according to the methodology F. Hoppe is carried out individually with the help of two sets of cards, on which simple tasks are given, perceived as a test for general erudition. The subject is offered to solve tasks, the complexity of which increases from 1 to 12 and from 1a to 12a. Cards with the same numbers have tasks of the same difficulty. In what order the tasks will be solved does not matter. The subject is told that the solution time is strictly limited and is fixed by a stopwatch. In fact, the experimenter, following the stopwatch, can at his own discretion increase or decrease the time for completing the task and thereby arbitrarily create a situation of "success" or "failure". The order in which cards are selected is recorded in the protocol. Completed tasks are marked with a "+" sign, unfulfilled - with a "-" sign.

The processing of the results consists in assessing not the intellectual capabilities of the subject, but the features of his behavior depending on success or failure, the presence or absence of tendencies to complicate the task. People with a stable character move to easy tasks after failures and more difficult ones after success smoothly, with emotional instability abruptly. After a little success, they can choose the most difficult task, and after a single failure, the easiest one. When choosing, which does not depend on success or failure, it is recommended to conduct an additional study, since we can talk about mental disorders.

87. Concept of character

Character - This is a stable individual combination of personality traits, manifested in human behavior, in a certain relationship to oneself, to other people, to things, to the work performed.

Individual character traits mean, first of all, the volitional qualities of a person (the degree of perseverance, determination, independence, discipline, readiness to overcome obstacles, mental and physical pain). However, this includes the sensitivity and emotionality of the individual (cheerfulness, depression, etc.), as well as mental abilities (thoughtfulness, frivolity, etc.).

Character is manifested in the features of the activity that a person is engaged in (in the degree of its difficulty, in the presence of obstacles, etc.), in communication with other people (in the manner of behavior, ways of responding to the actions and deeds of people, etc.).

The content of the character is influenced by social influences, the life orientation of the individual, his material and spiritual needs, interests, beliefs, ideals, etc.

Character is not just any manifestation of firmness, perseverance, etc., but a focus on socially significant activities. It is the orientation of the personality that underlies the unity, integrity, strength of character. The presence of life goals is the main condition for the formation of character. A spineless person is characterized by the absence or dispersion of goals.

The concept of a person with character is usually invested in the idea of the ability of this person to show his will, perseverance, determination and perseverance.

The leading component of the formed character is the system of persuasion, which determines the long-term direction of a person's behavior, his inflexibility in achieving his goals, confidence in the justice and importance of the work he performs. The stable and deep interests of a person are closely related to character traits. The superficiality and instability of interests leads to imitation, a lack of independence and integrity of a person's personality.

The nature of the human personality is multifaceted. Separate properties of character, which are systematically manifested in various types of his activities and by which one can judge his possible actions under certain conditions, are called his features or sides. A character trait includes a certain way of thinking, understanding.

The formation, development and functioning of character is closely related to temperament, which is its dynamic component. With a certain temperament, some traits are acquired more easily, others more difficult. For example, organizational and communication skills are easier to develop for sanguine and choleric people than for phlegmatic and melancholic people.

The character of a person is a combination of innate properties of higher nervous activity with individual traits acquired during life.

Character traits are connected and dependent on each other, forming a holistic organization, which is called the character structure. It includes three groups of traits:

1) features that determine a person's actions in choosing the goals of activity (rationality, prudence, etc.);

2) features that relate to actions aimed at achieving the set goals (perseverance, purposefulness, consistency, etc.);

3) traits directly related to temperament (anxiety-calmness, impulsiveness-restraint, etc.).

Among the character traits, there are leading traits that set the general direction of the character and secondary traits that may or may not be in harmony with the main ones.

88. Typology of character

There are various character typologies that come from a number of general ideas:

1) the formation of a person's character occurs quite early, throughout the rest of his life, the character is quite stable;

2) combinations of personality traits that are part of a person's character are not random, but form clearly distinguishable types that make it possible to identify and build a typology of characters;

3) in accordance with this typology, most of the people can be divided into groups.

Psychoanalytic typology of characters proceeds from the fixation of the subject on a certain method of satisfaction inherent in one or another stage of his psychosexual development.

The following types of characters are distinguished:

1) the oral character contains pronounced elements of the oral fixation of early childhood. Characterized by dependence on others in maintaining self-respect, external support. As a compensation for love and security, and also to avoid depression, gluttony, drinking, smoking develop as a result of the infantile association of safety and comfort with feeding;

2) the anal character is manifested by increased frugality, irritability, pedantry, stinginess, stubbornness, emphasized accuracy, which is associated with direct anal fixation, which occurs when the child is accustomed to the culture of bowel movements;

3) the urethral character is expressed by ambition and a tendency to compete, as a compensatory reaction to a suppressed sense of shame;

4) the phallic character is distinguished by carelessness, determination and self-confidence, which are only an unconscious defensive reaction to the fear of castration not overcome in childhood;

5) the genital character is manifested by good communication skills, coupled with the ability to achieve genital orgasm.

Constitutional typologies of character in fact, they identify character with temperament and associate them with body features. There are three types of character:

1) the asthenic type is characterized by a small body thickness in profile with average or above average height, thin skin of the face and body, narrow shoulders, thin arms, an elongated flat chest with underdeveloped muscles and weak fat accumulations;

2) the athletic type is manifested by a highly developed skeleton and muscles with medium or high growth, with broad shoulders, a powerful chest;

3) the picnic type is characterized by a tendency to obesity with underdeveloped muscles and the musculoskeletal system, highly developed internal body cavities (head, chest, abdomen).

Neo-Freudian typology emphasizes the importance of socio-psychological and socio-cultural factors in the formation of character:

1) a separate type is focused on the formation of a protective installation from people;

2) the compliant type is focused on people (movement towards people), in a hypertrophied form it is expressed by dependence and helplessness;

3) the hostile type is oriented against people, predetermining hostility, the desire for domination and exploitation are typical.

Social typology of character according to E. Fromm associated with the development of the concept of "social character":

1) the receptive type is characterized by passivity, dependence on others;

2) the exploiting type seeks to achieve its goals through the use of other people;

3) the cumulative type sees the solution to problems in the accumulation of material or other benefits;

4) the market type is characterized by the formula: "everything is bought and everything is sold", for him everything is a commodity;

5) the productive type is manifested by independence, creative and social activity, the ability for unconditional love and creation.

89. Character accentuations and their types

Accentuation of character - excessive strengthening of individual character traits to the detriment of others, resulting in selective vulnerability to certain psychogenic influences.

Accentuations can be of varying degrees of severity. Depending on this, explicit and hidden accentuations are distinguished. The latter appear only in extreme situations. Unlike psychopathy and personality disorders, these are always extreme variants of the norm. Over the years, accentuations of character can be significantly smoothed out.

The founder of this typology, K. Leongrad, identified 12 types accentuations:

1) hyperthymic (hyperactive) type characterized by high spirits, increased talkativeness, cheerfulness, energy. People of this type are independent, striving for leadership, risk, adventures, do not respond to comments, ignore punishments, lose the line of what is permitted. They lack self-criticism. They are resourceful, they know how to dodge, dodge, they do not tolerate tough discipline;

2) cycloid type It is shown by change of the periods of raised mood by the periods of depression. Such mood swings are systematic. In the hyperthymic phase, cyclothymics show stormy joy, a thirst for activity, talkativeness, in the dysthymic phase they are immersed in their experiences, emotionally depressed, thinking is inhibited;

3) dysthymic type is the antipode of the hyperthymic type and is characterized by a constantly depressed mood. People of this type are often sad, closed, laconic, pessimistic. They are burdened by a noisy society, they do not closely converge with colleagues;

4) emotionally labile type manifested by extreme variability of mood, excessive sensitivity. Mood swings occur on minor occasions, people of this type are overly sensitive to comments, failures;

5) stuck type distinguishes high stability of affect, duration. People of this type "get stuck" on their feelings, thoughts, cannot forget insults. When insulted, they tend to "settle scores", they are characterized by official and domestic intractability, a tendency to protracted conflicts;

6) demonstrative characterized by pronounced vanity, the desire to be in the spotlight and achieve their goals at any cost: through lies, illness, tears, fainting, etc. People of this type are characterized by mannerisms, self-praise, exaggeration of their merits. They easily forget about their unseemly deeds, but remember their achievements for a long time;

7) excitable type manifested by increased aggressiveness, sullenness, irritability, intemperance, boredom, which can be masked by flattery and helpfulness. People of this type are prone to conflicts, rudeness and foul language;

8) pedantic type characterized by increased caution and indecision, which are expressed in increased accuracy and love of order;

9) psychasthenic type characterized by increased anxiety, low mood, timidity, timidity, self-doubt;

10) exalted type is distinguished by a violent emotional reaction to what is happening, increased distractibility to external events, talkativeness and amorousness;

11) schizoid type known as a pattern of closure. Although contacts with other people are not difficult for him, communication occurs only when necessary. Characterized by increased vulnerability, self-absorption, concealment of experiences. Cold attitude towards other people, even relatives;

12) conformal type characterized by high sociability, talkativeness. People of this type live "like everyone else", do not have their own opinion, prefer to obey.

90. Character building

Currently, it is believed that character is not an innate property of a person and is formed during a person's life. However, character traits associated with temperament are innate.

In the formation and development of the character of the child, the main role is played by his communication with other people. The child learns the forms of behavior of the adults around him through imitation and emotional reinforcement.

The first signs of the emergence and stabilization of character must be sought at the age of 2-3 to 9-10 years, which is a sensitive period for the formation of character, when children communicate a lot and actively both with surrounding adults and with peers, are open to influences from the outside, they are readily accepted, imitating everyone and in everything. During this period, adult close people enjoy the boundless trust of the child, having the opportunity to influence him with a word, deed and action, which creates favorable conditions for reinforcing the necessary forms of behavior.

The child's living conditions, the family in which he grows up, the moral and value orientations of its members, their relationship to him and to each other have a special influence on the formation of character. This is especially true for the treatment of the mother's child. The child often adopts that stereotype of the mother's and father's behavior towards him and after many years uses it in dealing with his children. The formation of character occurs both through communication with adults and peers, and on the basis of books, radio, television, school, traditions, etc.

In the formation of character, activities characteristic of the corresponding period are of great importance: play, study, work.

Most early, even in the first months of life, such traits as kindness, sociability, responsiveness, as well as their opposite qualities are laid in the character of a person: selfishness, callousness, indifference to people. They are determined by the way a mother treats her child.

In preschool childhood, such character traits as diligence, accuracy, conscientiousness, responsibility, perseverance, and other "business" qualities begin to take shape. They are formed and fixed in the games of children and the types of domestic work available to them. Moreover, it is mainly those traits that are constantly supported and stimulated that are preserved and consolidated. At this age, the first contours of character are already outlined.

Upon entering school, the child is faced with new strict rules and school responsibilities, which form in him accuracy, discipline, perseverance, organization, etc. In addition, the school expands the scope of the child’s communication with others due to the many new school friends and adults - teachers, which contributes to the formation of his communicative character traits. Those personality traits that the child has acquired at home, receiving support at school, are fixed and most often remain throughout the rest of his life. If the character traits and the requirements for them do not match, a break in character occurs, which is usually accompanied by pronounced internal and external conflicts. It usually leads to a partial change in character traits and a compromise between what the child was taught at home and what the school requires of him.

The formation of strong-willed character traits occurs in adolescence. In early youth, the basic moral, ideological foundations of character are laid. By the end of school, a person's character can be considered basically formed. However, the adjustment of character occurs throughout a person's life.

91. Study of character

Risk propensity study carried out in a group or individually using the A.G. Shmelev questionnaire, consisting of 50 questions. The subject is asked to carefully read each statement, answer whether it is true in relation to him or not. If it is true, then in the answer sheet, a "+" sign is put against the statement number, and not - "-".

Processing and analysis of the results consists in obtaining an indicator of the magnitude of the propensity to risk (R) as a character trait. The indicator is calculated by the number of matches of answers with the key. The higher the risk appetite, the greater the propensity. Thus, the propensity to risk is considered high if Pr is equal to or more than 30, medium if Pr is from 11 to 29, low if Pr is below 11.

To determine the sincerity of the subject to the study, the questionnaire contains statements, agreement with which indicates the sincerity of the respondent, and disagreement indicates insincerity. In case of unreliable results, testing is recommended to be repeated.

The study of volitional self-regulation conducted with one subject or with a group using a test questionnaire by A.V. Zverkov and E.V. Eidman, containing 30 questions. The subject is asked, after carefully reading each statement, to answer whether it is true in relation to him or not. If it is true, then in the answer sheet, a "+" sign is put against the statement number, and not - "-".

Processing and analysis of the results consists in determining the values of the indices of volitional self-regulation on the points of the general scale (B) and the indices on the subscales "perseverance" (N) and "self-control" (C). Indexes are calculated by the number of matches of answers with the key.

The level of development of volitional self-regulation, that is, the ability to consciously control one's actions, is characterized by such properties as perseverance and self-control.

If the value of the indices on scales B, C and H is higher than the average values of each of the scales, that is, above 12, 8 and 6, respectively, then the level of development of general self-regulation, perseverance or self-control is high. Such individuals are characterized by activity, independence, self-confidence, realistic plans (scale "B"), they are persistent, strive to bring everything to the end, without being distracted by other matters and temptations, they completely subordinate their behavior to social norms (scale "C") , they are characterized by inner peace, self-confidence, readiness to perceive the new (scale "H").

A low score on the "B" scale is observed in people who are sensitive, emotionally unstable, vulnerable, insecure. Low values on the "C" scale indicate increased lability, impulsiveness, and inconsistency in behavior. People with a low "H" scale are characterized by spontaneity, impulsiveness, resentment, and a preference for traditional views.

It is impossible to speak unambiguously about the preference of high indicators over low ones, since high levels often reflect the appearance of maladaptive traits and forms of behavior. In contrast, low levels of perseverance and self-control in some cases perform compensatory functions. Both extreme categories require correction.

Study of character accentuations carried out individually or in a group according to the Shmishek questionnaire. The subject is asked to carefully read each question, answer it YES or NO. If the answer is positive, the "+" sign is put against the question number in the answer sheet, and "-" if the answer is negative.

Processing and analysis of the results consists in counting the number of answers matching the key, which is multiplied by the value of the coefficient of the corresponding type of accentuation; if the obtained value exceeds 18, then this indicates the severity of this type of accentuation.

92. The concept of temperament

Temperament - these are stable individual properties of the psyche inherent in a person from birth, which determine the dynamics of a person's mental activity. Temperament is the biological foundation on which a person is formed as a social being. It equally manifests itself in a variety of activities, regardless of its content, goals, motives, and remains constant in adulthood.

The nature of the course of mental processes depends on temperament:

1) the speed of occurrence and stability of mental processes (speed of perception, thinking, duration of memorization, etc.);

2) the rhythm and pace of mental activity;

3) the intensity of mental processes (willpower, concentration of attention, etc.);

4) the orientation of mental activity (the desire to achieve the goal, to contacts with other people, to recognition, etc.).

Temperament is a fairly stable personality trait, it manifests itself in the same way in various types of human activity in various situations: in conversation, in behavior, in gait, while doing work or at rest. However, temperament lends itself well to adjustment with constant work on oneself. The formation of the properties of temperament occurs in the process of human activity and is largely determined by the orientation of the individual.

Features of temperament are closely related to the features of communication and largely determine the psychological compatibility or incompatibility of people.

Temperament is the basis on which a person's character is formed.

There are no bad and good temperaments. With any temperament, a person can develop both positive and negative qualities.

Each activity imposes certain requirements on the human psyche and its dynamic features, and therefore, there are no temperaments that are ideally suited for all types of activities.

There are several ways to adapt temperament to the requirements of activity:

1) professional selection;

2) adaptations of temperament to activity;

3) overcoming the negative influence of temperament;

4) the formation of an individual style.

Temperament properties:

1) activity characterizes the intensity of a person's impact on the outside world and his ability to overcome obstacles in achieving goals (purposefulness, perseverance, etc.);

2) reactivity - the degree of involuntary reactions to external and internal influences of the same strength (criticism, life difficulties);

3) the ratio of activity and reactivity shows what human activity depends to a greater extent: on random external or internal circumstances (mood, well-being) or on goals, beliefs and principles;

4) sensitivity or sensitivity - determines the strength of the impact for the occurrence of the reaction and the speed of its occurrence;

5) plasticity - rigidity - the degree of adaptation of a person to external influences;

6) rate of reactions - the speed of various mental reactions and processes (the rate of speech, the speed of thought processes, the dynamics of gestures);

7) extraversion - introversion determines the predominant orientation of the personality's activity (to the outside world - for an extrovert, to the inner world - for an introvert);

8) emotional excitability is determined by the force of impact necessary for the occurrence of an emotional reaction and the speed of its occurrence;

9) impressionability - the degree of influence of various stimuli on the strength of the response and the time they are stored in memory;

10) impulsiveness - a tendency to rash, spontaneous actions;

11) anxiety - a tendency to worry.

93. Types of temperament

The first typology of temperaments, which is still used today, was proposed by Hippocrates, who believed that a person's temperament is determined by which of the four fluids of his body prevails. In sanguine people, blood predominates (lat. "Sangvis"), in choleric people - bile ("chole"), in phlegmatic people - mucus ("phlegm"), in melancholic people - black bile ("melana-chole").

Choleric has an easily excitable nervous system, which is characterized by the predominance of excitation over inhibition. Choleric is characterized by quick reaction, frequent thoughtlessness of decisions. He does not have time to slow down, restrain himself, shows impatience, lack of restraint, sharpness of movements, irascibility, impetuosity, unbridledness. In choleric people, the imbalance of the nervous system is manifested in a rapid change in mood, state of activity and cheerfulness. Carried away by some business, the choleric works passionately, with full dedication, but quickly cools down, because he does not have enough strength for a long time, and he continues to work without enthusiasm, and sometimes he throws the matter "halfway". At the same time, an irritated state, bad mood, loss of strength and lethargy appear. The alternation of positive and negative cycles causes uneven behavior and well-being of the choleric person, his increased susceptibility to the appearance of neurotic breakdowns and conflicts with people.

Sanguine characterized by the presence of a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system, has a fast reaction rate, his actions are deliberate. He is usually cheerful, due to which he is characterized by a high resistance to the difficulties of life. Due to the great mobility of his nervous system, the sanguine person is characterized by the variability of feelings, affections, interests, views, high adaptability to new conditions. The sanguine person has great productivity, which manifests itself only when there are many interesting things to do, that is, with constant excitement, otherwise he becomes boring, lethargic, distracted. In a stressful situation, a sanguine person actively and deliberately defends himself. The sanguine is characterized by the rapid establishment of social contacts, sociability. The sanguine is often the soul of the campaign. He easily converges with new people and therefore he has a wide circle of acquaintances, but in relation to people he can be changeable and inconsistent.

Phlegmatic person has a strong, balanced, but inert nervous system, which manifests itself in a slow reaction, taciturnity, emotional coldness. He resists well to strong and prolonged stimuli, difficulties, has high efficiency, but is not able to quickly respond to unexpected new situations. The phlegmatic person firmly remembers and assimilates information, but is not able to abandon the developed stereotypes, does not like to change habits, routines, work, new friends, it is difficult and slow to adapt to new conditions. The phlegmatic is characterized by a stable, even mood. Even in critical situations, he remains outwardly calm.

Melancholic has a weak nervous system. It is characterized by increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli. A strong irritant can cause him a nervous breakdown, confusion. Therefore, in stressful situations, the results of the melancholic's activities may worsen compared to a calm, familiar situation. Possessing increased sensitivity, he quickly gets tired, tends to give himself up to experiences, often sad, depressed, unsure of himself, anxious. Due to their high sensitivity, melancholics often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities.

94. Physiological basis of temperament

The study of the physiological basis of temperament was carried out by I.P. Pavlov. Studying the work of the cerebral hemispheres, he found that all traits of temperament depend on the characteristics of the higher nervous system. Pavlov singled out three properties of temperament, according to which typological differences in temperaments were observed: strength, balance and mobility.

Strength of the nervous system - this is the ability of the nervous system to withstand strong excitation and prolonged inhibition, in its performance. According to this indicator, two types of the nervous system are possible: strong and weak. A strong nervous system reacts to strong stimuli with strong processes of excitation, a weak one with weak processes of excitation and inhibition.

Equilibrium - the degree of proportionality of the ratio of the processes of excitation and inhibition. According to this characteristic, three variants of the nervous system are possible: balanced, with a predominance of excitation or inhibition processes. When excitation predominates over inhibition, there is a rapid formation of conditioned reflexes and their slow extinction. With the predominance of inhibition over excitation, a slow formation of conditioned reflexes and their rapid extinction are observed.

Mobility - the ability of the nervous system to quickly respond to the change of one process by another.

Pavlov established that a strong, balanced, fast type of nervous system corresponds to the sanguine temperament; phlegmatic - strong, balanced, slow type; choleric - a strong, unbalanced fast type; melancholic-weak, unbalanced, slow type. Most people have subtle mixed types of the nervous system, which give certain mixed types of temperament.

Further studies have shown that there are much more properties of the nervous system. Thus, such properties of the nervous system as lability - the rate of emergence and course of nervous processes, dynamism - speed and ease of development of conditioned reflexes, concentration, activity, etc. In this regard, the characteristics of temperament types were refined.

So, according to the orientation of the personality, K. Jung singled out the extravertive and introvertive type of temperament. The extravertive type of people is aimed at active interaction with the outside world, they are characterized by sociability, impulsiveness, thirst for new experiences, increased motor and speech activity. Introverts are characterized by a focus on their inner world, a tendency to introspection, isolation. Social adaptation is difficult for them, speech and movements are slowed down.

G. Eysenck added to Jung's extraversion and introversion emotional stability and neuroticism, characterized by instability of the emotional sphere, sharp mood swings, inconstancy of interests, etc.

Based on these combinations, G. Eysenck described 4 main types of temperament in a new way:

Sanguine - a combination of extraversion and emotional stability; choleric - a combination of extraversion and emotional instability; phlegmatic person - a combination of introversion and emotional stability; melancholic - a combination of introversion and emotional instability.

The type of temperament is a fairly stable characteristic, which is associated with the innate anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nervous system. However, there is the possibility of influencing the temperament of some intravital factors, such as the conditions of upbringing, diseases transferred at an early age, traumatic brain injuries, dietary habits, age-related and hormonal changes.

95. Study of temperament

Study of the properties of temperament carried out individually or in a group using a test questionnaire by V.M. Rusalov, consisting of 105 questions. The subject is asked to answer 105 questions, imagining typical situations and giving the first answer that comes to mind: Yes or No. At the same time, he is warned that there are no "bad" and "good" answers.

Processing of the results consists in obtaining a number of indicators of temperament properties, which are calculated by the number of matches with the answers "Yes" and "No" given in the key.

The index of subject ergicity "Er" reflects the level of a person's need for the development of the subject world, the desire for mental and physical labor, the degree of involvement in labor activity.

The indicator of social ergicity "Sir" - characterizes the level of need for social contacts, indicates the focus on the development of social forms of activity, the desire for leadership, sociability and involvement in social activities.

Plasticity indicator "P" - reflects the ease of switching from one subject to another, the speed of transition from one way of thinking to another in the process of interaction with the subject environment, the desire for a variety of forms of activity.

The indicator of social plasticity "SP" - determines the degree of ease of switching attention in the process of communication from one person to another, the tendency to a variety of communicative forms and forms of social contact.

The rate indicator "T" - characterizes the speed characteristics of a person. It testifies to the speed of performing individual operations, the speed of motor-motor acts in the performance of objective activities.

The indicator of social tempo "ST" - helps to establish the speed characteristics of speech-motor acts in the process of communication.

The indicator of emotionality "Em" is designed to assess the emotional sensitivity to a discrepancy (discrepancy) between the intended, expected, planned and the results of a real objective action, sensitivity to failures in work.

The indicator of social emotionality "Sam" - shows emotional sensitivity in the communicative sphere (sensitivity to failures in communication, to the assessments of other people).

The indicator of social desirability control "K" is an indicator of the sincerity of the answers. The higher the "K" indicator, the less sincerity, and vice versa. With sincere and honest answers, "K" does not exceed 5.

Each of the properties of temperament is evaluated separately. A trait is considered low at a score between 0-3, medium at a score between 4-8, and high at a score of 9-12.

Study of the strength of the nervous system carried out in two stages using a temping test.

At the first and second stages, the subject is asked to put as many points as possible in six squares on the form with a pencil, moving from one square to another in a clockwise direction at the experimenter's command after 5 s. At the first stage, the points are put down with the right hand, at the second - with the left. The second stage begins after the first.

Processing of the results includes counting the number of points in the squares of the first and second forms. Then, health graphs are plotted separately for the right and left hands. To do this, five-second time intervals are plotted on the abscissa axis, and the number of points in each square is plotted on the ordinate axis.

A convex graph indicates a strong type of nervous system, a flat graph indicates an average type, a concave graph or a graph with a slowdown in 10-14 s. - about medium weak type; descending - about the weak type. With a significant discrepancy between the graphs of the right and left hands, the study is repeated.

96. The concept of abilities and inclinations

Capabilities - This is a set of psychological characteristics of a person, on which the success of various types of his activities and the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities depends.

There are the following signs of abilities:

1) abilities are individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another (features of sensations, perception, memory, thinking, imagination, emotions, will, communication, motor reactions, etc.);

2) abilities are not called all individual characteristics, but only those that are related to the success of an activity or several types of activity. Personality traits that are not conducive to the success of activities (irascibility, lethargy, indifference) are not abilities;

3) abilities facilitate and accelerate the acquisition of skills, abilities and knowledge, but they themselves are not limited to skills, abilities or knowledge of a person.

Abilities for this or that activity are not innate personality traits. Congenital are only the inclinations that make up the natural basis for the development of abilities.

Makings - these are morphological and functional features of the brain and nervous system, sense organs and movement given to everyone from birth and acting as natural prerequisites for the development of abilities.

The inclinations include some innate features of the visual and auditory analyzers, properties of the nervous system, on which the speed of formation of temporary nerve connections, their strength, the strength of concentrated attention, the endurance of the nervous system, and mental performance depend.

There are three levels of properties of the nervous system:

1) general properties - cover the entire human brain and characterize the dynamics of its work as a whole;

2) complex properties - are manifested in the features of the work of individual parts of the brain;

3) elementary properties - characterize the work of individual neurons.

The level of development and correlation of the first and second signal systems should also be considered as inclinations.

According to the type of predominance of a particular signal system I.P. Pavlov distinguished three types of higher nervous activity:

1) artistic type (the predominance of the first signal system) - characterized by the brightness of immediate impressions, imagery of perception and memory, richness and liveliness of the imagination, emotionality;

2) thoughtful type (prevalence in the second signal system) - a tendency to analysis, systematization, to generalized, abstract thinking is characteristic;

3) balanced type - type of the nervous system, which is characterized by the balance of signaling systems.

Individual features of the structure of individual sections of the cerebral cortex can also be inclinations.

One and the same deposit can be realized in different types of abilities. Depending on how a person's life will go, what he learns, what he is inclined to, on the basis of one inclination, different abilities can be developed. Inclinations can determine the originality of a person's development, the style of his intellectual or other activity.

Abilities don't just coexist with each other. They change, acquiring a qualitatively different character, depending on the presence and degree of development of other abilities.

Inclinations are only one of the conditions for the development and formation of abilities. Capabilities are a dynamic concept. They exist only in motion and development. Even the best inclinations for turning them into abilities require development in the corresponding activity. The early awakening of inclinations is facilitated by a favorable environment, upbringing and training.

97. Classification of abilities

Abilities are usually distinguished according to their focus on natural and specific.

natural ability - these are the abilities common to humans and animals (perception, memory, the ability for elementary communication, thinking). Natural abilities are directly related to innate inclinations. The formation of abilities occurs in the presence of elementary life experience, through the mechanisms of learning, etc.;

Specific abilities - are formed on the basis of natural abilities.

Specific features vary by:

1) general - these are the abilities that are characteristic of most people and determine the success of a person in a variety of activities. Among the general abilities of a person are mental abilities, abilities manifested in communication, interaction with people (the ability to correctly perceive and evaluate the actions of people, interact with them and establish good relationships in various social situations, the ability to speak, facial expressions, gestures, etc. .). Communication abilities are socially conditioned and are formed in a person in the course of his life in society;

2) special higher intellectual abilities - determine the success of a person in specific activities, the implementation of which requires the makings of a special kind and their development (literary, artistic, creative, musical, mathematical, technical, sports, etc.). They are divided into:

a) theoretical ability (a person's tendency to abstract-theoretical reflections) and practical ability (ability to specific practical actions). Theoretical and practical abilities are usually not combined with each other. Their combination is found only in gifted, diversified people;

b) training (determine the success of training, assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person) and Creative skills (determine the possibility of discoveries and inventions, the creation of new objects of material and spiritual culture, etc.). The development of creative abilities is possible only on the basis of accumulated knowledge, i.e., creative abilities cannot develop without the presence of learning abilities. Learning abilities can develop without developing creativity. Thus, most people who graduated from higher educational institutions have developed educational abilities, but only a few of them are capable of creativity. Both groups of abilities are of great importance for humanity in general and for one particular person in particular. So, if humanity were deprived of the opportunity to create, it would not be able to develop. In the absence of a person's learning abilities, people would not be able to assimilate the entire amount of knowledge accumulated by previous generations, which would also hinder development.

General and special abilities mutually complement and enrich each other. The higher the general abilities are developed, the more conditions for the development of special conditions. A person can simultaneously have highly developed various types of both general and special abilities. In some cases, a high level of development of general abilities can act as special abilities in relation to certain types of activities.

By interacting with each other, the abilities modify each other. Such an influence becomes especially strong when it comes to interdependent abilities.

Each activity makes its own special requirements for the development of general and special abilities, in connection with which a multifaceted personality has more opportunities for successful activity.

98. Ability Concepts

There are a large number of different theories on the nature of human abilities, which can be divided into three main concepts.

One of the concepts, the ancestor of which can be considered Plato is the concept of the innate nature of abilitieswhich only change under the influence of training and education. The proof of this is the presence of facts of individual differences observed in children at an age when training and education could not yet exert their influence (Mozart's ability to music appeared already at the age of three, Haydn's at four). F. Galton and Kotsobratil and attention to the presence of family ties between gifted people, which indicates the hereditary nature of abilities. An example is the families of Bach, Trubetskoy (who gave the world Pushkin and Tolstoy), Andreevs, as well as numerous dynasties of artists, artists, sailors, doctors, teachers, etc. However, there are even more examples when people from the common people, having received an education , made brilliant discoveries (M. Lomonosov and others).

The followers of the concept of the hereditary nature of abilities also put forward assumptions about the relationship of a person's abilities with the mass of his brain and the dependence of a person's mental characteristics on the external shape of the skull (phrenology). However, both of these assumptions have not received scientific confirmation and have been rejected.

This concept is also confirmed by the results of modern studies conducted using the twin method, showing the coincidence of abilities and the level of their development within monozygotic pairs (identical twins) in 70-80% of cases, and in pairs of siblings (brothers and sisters who are not twins) only in 40-50%. This indicates a close connection of abilities, or at least inclinations, with heredity. The same results were obtained in the study of homo- and heterozygous twins raised together and separately. Studies have shown that homozygous twins who lived and were raised in different families did not show significant differences in the level of ability development.

The concept of the acquired nature of abilities. Supporters of this concept believe that abilities are entirely determined by the quality of education and training, citing as an example children from primitive tribes, who, having received appropriate training, did not differ in any way from educated Europeans. They believe that through education, genius can be formed. This concept is confirmed by cases of children's development outside of human society, which show the impossibility of proper human development outside of society. This approach is also supported by the facts of mass development of certain special abilities in certain cultures.

W. Ashby argues that abilities are determined primarily by the program of intellectual activity that was formed in a person in childhood. On the basis of this program, some people solve creative problems, while others are able to perform only what they have been taught.

The concept of the biosocial nature of abilities - withhuman abilities by their nature have both biological and social determinants of development. This concept is also adhered to by domestic psychology. It does not recognize the innate abilities, only the inclinations and features of the structure of the brain, which may be the conditions for the successful implementation of a certain activity, have an innate character. However, the inclinations themselves do not mean that a person will develop the corresponding abilities. Their development requires special social conditions.

99. Ability and activity

The concept of ability does not exist by itself, it is always associated with activity. The totality of mental qualities, which acts as an ability, is ultimately determined by the requirements of a particular activity. Different skills develop for different activities. The structure of abilities for any type of activity includes a number of individual abilities. Thus, the structure of mathematical abilities includes the ability for appropriate mathematical actions, generalization of mathematical material, flexibility of thought processes, etc. The presence of abilities for one type of activity does not exclude the presence of abilities for other types of activity. However, abilities that contribute to the performance of one type of activity may take part in the performance of other, not necessarily related types of activity. For example, the ability to create vivid visual images of memory can be successfully used in literary, pedagogical, medical activities, and in drawing. Personality features that form the structure of specific abilities are conditionally divided into leading and auxiliary. So, the leading features of a doctor include love for people, compassion, a desire to help and alleviate suffering, the ability to analyze, synthesize and differentiate, and auxiliary patience, perseverance, tact. It is possible to replace some abilities with others, usually performing an auxiliary function. For example, a weak development of the ability to mechanically memorize a text can be replaced by logical memorization.

Ability and activity are not identical concepts to each other. A person can be well technically educated and prepared, but little capable of any activity, and vice versa. Thus, people are known who perform complex calculations in their minds with extreme speed, while possessing very average mathematical abilities.

Ability is only a prerequisite for the development of certain types of activity, and whether it becomes a reality depends on various conditions. For the development of abilities in a certain activity, appropriate conditions are necessary: special education, creatively working teachers, etc.

Abilities are not only manifested in activity, but also developed through activity. But not every activity develops the abilities of the individual. There are activities that, on the contrary, distract and even hinder the development of basic abilities. For example, if a person with musical inclinations is forced to engage in hard physical labor, then this activity is unlikely to develop the abilities inherent in him.

The indicators of the development of abilities in a particular area of human activity can be the rate of assimilation, its ease and speed.

A capable person, ceteris paribus (level of preparedness, time limit, availability of knowledge, skills, etc.), gets maximum results compared to less capable people.

Abilities cannot be reduced to just one property, since any activity is complex and diverse. Achievements of a capable person are the result of the compliance of the complex of his neuropsychic properties with the requirements of activity. The requirements that activities impose on the physical and mental forces of a person can be varied. If a person has these properties, then a person is able to successfully and at a high level carry out activities. If such properties are not found, the person is unable to perform this or that activity.

100. Development of abilities

"The development of abilities takes place in a spiral: the realization of the possibilities that the ability of one level represents opens up new opportunities for further development, for the development of abilities of a higher level" (S.L. Rubinshtein).

The formation of the child's abilities occurs gradually through mastering him in the process of learning the content of material and spiritual culture, technology, science, and art. It goes in several stages based on innate inclinations.

At the first stage, the maturation of the organic structures necessary for the development of abilities takes place, the formation of functional systems on their basis, the improvement of the work of all analyzers, the development and functional differentiation of individual sections of the cerebral cortex. It starts from the moment of birth and lasts up to six or seven years. During this period, the child develops general abilities, on the basis of which the development of special abilities takes place.

The development of special abilities continues at school, at the institute and further throughout life. The incentive for the development of special abilities is children's games, during which the development of not one, but many motor, design, organizational, artistic and visual and other creative abilities takes place.

In the process of development, each person goes through periods of increased sensitivity to certain influences, to the development of one or another type of activity. So, at the age of two to three years, oral speech is intensively developed, the age of five to seven years is most favorable for mastering reading. These periods of special readiness to master special types of activity do not have clear boundaries and are individual for each child. However, if any function did not receive its development in a favorable period, then later its development turns out to be extremely difficult, if not impossible.

Under the influence of educational and various types of labor activity, there is a further development and improvement of special abilities. However, only those types of activities that make the child think, create something new, discover new knowledge, new opportunities contribute to the development of the child. Creative activity strengthens positive self-esteem, increases the level of aspirations, generates self-confidence and a sense of satisfaction from the successes achieved. Creative activity that is in the zone of optimal difficulty, that is, at the limit of the child's capabilities, has a particularly favorable effect on the development of the child's abilities.

The development of abilities is also influenced by the features of family education, the features of the society in which a person develops, his career guidance.

There are two concepts of career guidance:

1) diagnostic - based on the determination by means of tests of an individual's suitability for a particular type of profession. This concept does not take into account the desires and aspirations of the subject himself, who has a passive role;

2) educational - a concept aimed at preparing an individual for professional life, on the basis of his self-determination in accordance with the planned educational impacts.

In domestic psychology, the solution of this problem is approached in a complex way: the abilities of the individual, his inclinations are taken into account and assistance is provided to him in preparing for his future profession.

E.A. Klimov identified four degrees of professional suitability:

1) unsuitability for this profession;

2) suitability for a particular profession;

3) compliance with this profession;

4) vocation to a given professional field of activity.

101. Levels of ability development

There are several levels of development of abilities, one of which is giftedness.

Giftedness - This is the level of development of abilities that provides a person with the opportunity to successfully perform any activity.

The successful implementation of this opportunity requires not only the presence of an appropriate combination of abilities, but also the acquisition of the necessary knowledge and skills.

In the structure of abilities, leading and auxiliary abilities can be distinguished. So, in the structure of visual abilities, the leading properties will be the sensorimotor qualities of the artist’s hand, the sense of line, proportion, shape, light and shade, color, rhythm, etc. The auxiliary qualities will be the emotional attitude to the depicted, the properties of artistic imagination, etc.

Both components of abilities form a unity, ensuring the success of the activity. Leading qualities contribute to the formation of auxiliary qualities necessary for the performance of activities.

The giftedness of people, even those engaged in the same activity, cannot be reduced to a set of specific indicators, since the combination of abilities and their manifestation is always strictly individual and most often unique. It is only possible to establish the presence of certain abilities and determine the relative level of their development.

Another level of ability development is skill - perfection of abilities in a particular type of activity. Mastery cannot be limited to the corresponding amount of ready-made skills and abilities. It is characterized by the absence of a gap between the awareness of the creative task and finding ways to solve it, the psychological readiness for creative solutions to emerging problems.

The next level of development of human abilities is talent, i.e., a high level of development of special abilities (sports, music, mathematics, literature, etc.).

Talent is a combination of abilities, and not a separate, even very highly developed, but isolated ability. Talent manifests itself and develops in activity, which in a talented person is distinguished by a fundamental novelty, originality of approach.

Talent can manifest itself in any human activity. However, the development of talents in a particular area is a socially conditioned phenomenon. The needs of the epoch and the peculiarities of the specific tasks facing a given society determine which talents will receive the most favorable conditions for full development.

Not only a scientist or artist can be talented, but also an attending physician, and a teacher, and a skilled worker, and a leader, and agrarian, and a pilot, and others. Talented people are characterized by the ability to solve complex theoretical and practical problems in any field knowledge or practice, to create material or spiritual values that are new and of progressive significance. Talent can also manifest itself in the assimilation of knowledge and their correct application in life and work.

The highest degree of manifestation of the creative forces of man is genius, i.e., the creation of qualitatively new creations that open a new era in the development of culture, science, and practice. The concept of genius is more of a theoretical nature (genius discovers and creates something new), while the concept of talent has more practical meaning (talent understands, quickly learns, applies to life and advances the new that was created by genius). Geniuses are characterized by excellence in various fields of activity. However, some side of the personality is usually better developed.

102. Ability research

Intelligence research can be done in a group or individually with a short orientation test (COT). The subjects are asked to solve 15 simple tasks within 50 minutes. Previously, they are introduced to examples of tasks and explained if something is not clear. During testing, any conversations between the subjects or the subject and the experimenter are prohibited.

The processing and analysis of the results consists in determining several indicators, one of which is the indicator of general mental abilities (IP), which is calculated by the number of correctly solved tasks.

The level of general mental abilities is low with Ip equal to 13 or less, below average with Ip from 14 to 18, average - with Ip 19-24, above average with Ip equal to 25-29, above average with Ip equal and more than 30.

Using this technique, you can determine other indicators of mental abilities:

1) the ability to generalize and analyze the material based on the performance of tasks for proverbs;

2) the flexibility of thinking is also established with the help of tasks for proverbs. If the subject's associations are chaotic, then we can talk about the rigidity of thinking;

3) inertia of thinking and switchability with the help of specially arranged tasks: the first of them can be solved in only one way (standard), the next - in two ways, standard or more rational. The more tasks are solved in a standard way, the more inertia of thinking is, and the switchability is lower;

4) distractibility and emotionality are revealed by tasks that can reduce the test score for the subjects. Emotionally reactive subjects begin to smile and address the experimenter instead of solving the problem;

5) the speed and accuracy of perception, the distribution and concentration of attention are determined by the ability to work with a wide variety of material in a short time, highlight the main content, compare numbers, signs, etc.;

6) the use of the language, literacy can be analyzed based on the performance of tasks, on the ability to use the language;

7) orientation is established due to the analysis of the strategy for choosing tasks for the test to solve;

8) spatial imagination is characterized by solving four problems involving operations in two-dimensional space.

Study of communication skills and organizational inclinations conducted with one subject or in a group using a CBS test questionnaire. The subjects are asked to answer 40 questions that are of a general nature. If the answer is positive, the number of the answer on the form is circled, if the answer is negative, it is crossed out. Subjects are asked to respond sincerely and quickly.

Processing and analysis of the results consists in obtaining indices of sociability and organizational inclinations, comparing them with the key and counting the number of matches. The coefficients of sociability and organizational skills are calculated by the formulas:

Kk \u20d Kx / XNUMX,

Ko \u20d Oh / XNUMX,

where Kk is the coefficient of sociability; Ko - coefficient of organizational inclinations; Kx and Ox - the number of answers matching the key, respectively, according to communicative and organizational inclinations.

Sociability is considered low with Kk below 0,45, below average with Kk equal to 0,46-0,55, average with Kk 0,56-0,65, above average with Kk 0,66-0,75, high with Kk above 0,75.

Organizational skills are considered low with Ko below 0,55, below average with Ko equal to 0,55-0,65, average with Ko 0-66, above average with Ko 0,70-0,71, high with Kk above 0,80.

103. The concept of motivation

Under the motive understand the internal motivation of the individual to a particular type of activity (activity, game, communication) associated with the satisfaction of a specific need.

Behind all these reasons are still the needs of the individual (vital, biological, social). Needs - a state caused by dissatisfaction with the requirements of the body, necessary for its normal functioning, and aimed at eliminating this dissatisfaction.

The same actions of a person can be caused by different motives. Ideals, interests of the individual, beliefs, social attitudes, values can act as motives.

Motivation - it is a set of factors that determine behavior, as well as the process of formation of motives.

There are various methods of motivation, which are currently being developed by labor psychology. One of the first methods of motivation is the "carrot and stick" method, which was used in the conditions of the administrative-command system. Currently, it is applied in the form of administrative and economic sanctions and incentives. This method is effective in case of low qualification of work, inability to change jobs, in conditions of brigade and collective contracts.

Increasing the role of the human factor led to the emergence of psychological methods of motivation based on psychological theories of motivation. These methods are based on the study of needs, on the fact that motivation is possible not only with material incentives, but also with self-esteem, recognition from the surrounding members of the team, moral satisfaction with work and pride in one's company. The study of human needs has led to the emergence of two variants of theories of motivation: content and process.

The motivational sphere of the personality is a set of persistent motives that have a certain hierarchy and express the orientation of the personality.

Motivation for activity can be:

1) success motivation - human actions are aimed at achieving constructive, positive results. Personal activity depends on the need to achieve success. Personalities with a predominance of success motivation are usually active, proactive in overcoming obstacles, persistent in achieving goals, and tend to plan their future for long periods of time. They set themselves average or slightly inflated goals, overestimate their failures. In conditions of time pressure or increasing task complexity, performance, as a rule, improves. They are interested in complex tasks.

2) fear of failure motivation - human actions are aimed at avoiding censure, punishment. The expectation of unpleasant consequences is what determines his activity. People with a predominance of this motivation have little initiative, avoid responsible tasks, and look for reasons for refusing them. They either set unreasonably high goals for themselves or, on the contrary, choose easy tasks that do not require special labor costs. They tend to overestimate their successes in light of their failures. In the conditions of lack of time and increased complexity of the task, their performance is deteriorating. They do not differ in perseverance in achieving the goal.

Socially significant motivational formations include:

1) the need for communication;

2) the motive of rejection - the fear of being rejected;

3) the motive of power;

4) altruism - the desire of a person to selflessly help people;

5) selfishness - the desire to satisfy personal needs and interests, regardless of the needs and interests of other people and social groups;

4) aggressiveness.

104. Theories of motivation

Meaningful Theories of Motivation first of all, they try to determine the needs that motivate people to act, especially when determining the scope and content of work.

The main content theories of motivation are:

1) the theory of the hierarchy of needs according to A. Maslow. At the heart of human behavior are five of his needs, located in the form of a pyramid:

a) physiological needs (needs for food, water, shelter, rest and sexual needs) - lie at the base of the pyramid;

b) needs for reliability (needs for protection from physical and psychological dangers, confidence in the satisfaction of physiological needs in the future);

c) social needs (needs for understanding, belonging to a group, affection and support);

d) status needs (the need for respect, self-respect, personal achievements, competence, recognition);

e) the need for self-expression (the need to realize one's potential and grow as a person) - are at the top of the pyramid.

The pyramidal arrangement of needs shows that the needs of the lower levels influence the behavior of a person before the needs of the higher levels begin to affect motivation.

2) McClelland's theory of motivation It assumes that people have three needs:

a) the need for power is expressed in the desire to influence other people;

b) the need for success - is satisfied by bringing the work to a successful completion;

c) the need for involvement - the need to establish friendly relations, to help others.

3) Herzberg's two-factor theory based on the relationship between job quality and job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Job satisfaction is influenced by motivating factors: achievements (qualification) and recognition of success, work as such (interest in work and the task), responsibility, promotion, and the possibility of professional growth. On dissatisfaction - "hygienic" factors: the method of management, organizational policy and administration, working conditions, interpersonal relationships in the workplace, earnings, uncertainty about the stability of work, the impact of work on personal life.

Procedural Theories of Motivation consider the behavior of a person as a result of his perception and expectations associated with a given situation, and the possible consequences of the chosen type of behavior.

The main process theories of motivation are:

1) Theory of Justice is based on three postulates:

a) people evaluate their relationships by comparison (what I put in and what I get).

b) the non-equivalence of contribution and return is a source of discomfort (guilt or resentment).

c) people who are not satisfied with their relationships seek to restore justice.

Ways to restore justice:

a) you get little - you give little. Employees begin to be late for work, leave early, reduce the amount of work, increase break times, etc.

b) the demand for a salary increase, promotion, bonus increase, etc.

c) breakup.

Reasons for the injustice:

a) incorrect psychological currency (the contribution of the employee is not understood or he is not recognized);

b) lack of trust;

c) hidden internal expectations;

d) the accumulation of resentment.

2) Vroom's expectation theory considers the process of motivation as the interaction of effort, performance and result. Effort is seen as the result of motivation. Execution - as a consequence of the interaction of efforts, personal capabilities and the state of the environment. The result - as a function that depends on the performance and on the degree of desire to obtain results of a certain type.

There are other theories of motivation.

105. Motivation research

The study of motivation for success is carried out using the T. Ehlers questionnaire, which consists of 41 statements, to which the subject must answer "yes" or "no". The degree of motivation for success is assessed by the number of points that match the key.

With a score of 1 to 10, motivation for success is considered low, from 11 to 16 points - medium, from 17 to 20 points - moderately high, more than 21 points - too high.

Moderately to strongly success-oriented people tend to take medium risk. The higher the person's motivation for success - achieving the goal, the lower the willingness to take risks.

The study of motivation to avoid failures is carried out according to the T. Ehlers questionnaire, which is a list of words of 30 lines, 3 words in each line. In each line, the subject needs to choose only one of the three words that most accurately characterizes him.

The subject receives 1 point if the word matches the key. Other answers of the subject do not receive points.

With a score of 2 to 10, the motivation for defense is low, from 11 to 16 points: medium; from 17 to 20 points: high; over 20 points - too high.

People who are afraid of failure prefer small or, conversely, excessively large risks, where failure does not threaten prestige.

The study of motivation to study among first-graders is carried out individually. A story is read to the child, in which 6 boys participate, each of which represents one of the motives for learning, at the same time 6 cards with the image of the motive are laid out in front of him:

1) "I go to school because my mother forces me. If it were not for my mother, I would not go to school." A card with a picture is laid out on the table in front of the child: a female figure with a pointing gesture, in front of her is the figure of a child with a briefcase in her hands. (External motive.);

2) "I go to school because I like to do my homework. Even if there was no school, I would still study." Card: the figure of a child sitting at a desk. (Educational motive.);

3) "I go to school because it's fun and there are a lot of kids to play with." Card: figurines of two children playing ball. (Game motive.);

4) "I go to school because I want to be big. When I'm at school, I feel like an adult, and before school I was small." Card: two figures depicted with their backs to each other: the one that is higher has a briefcase in their hands, the one that is lower has a toy car. (Positional motive.);

5) "I go to school because I need to learn. You can't do anything without learning, but if you learn, you can become whatever you want." Card: the figure with a briefcase in his hands is heading towards the building. (Social motive.);

6) "I go to school because I get A's there." Card: a figure of a child holding an open notebook in his hands. (Mark.)

After reading the story, the psychologist asks questions:

a) Who do you think is right? Why? (Choice I)

b) Which of them would you like to play with? Why? (Choice 2)

c) Who would you like to study with? Why? (Choice 3)

The choice must be consistent. If the child is not confident enough in his answer, ask a control question: "What did this boy say?".

The number of the selected card is entered in the table and evaluated:

1) external motive - 0 points;

2) educational motive - 5 points;

3) positional motive - 3 points;

4) social motive - 4 points;

5) mark - 2 points;

6) game motive - 1 point.

The control choice increases the score of the corresponding choice.

The dominant motivation for learning is judged by the highest number of points. The absence of preferences, i.e., different approaches in all situations, indicates the unformed motivation of the teaching.

106. Emotions and feelings

Feelings and emotions - these are personal relationships experienced by a person to the world around him and to himself. Sources of feelings and emotions are real objects and phenomena of the external or internal world of a person. Feeling is a more complex concept than emotions. It implies a permanent, well-established emotional attitude of a person. Feelings are expressed in emotions. Emotions are understood as the direct experience of various specific events and situations of life. Emotions are formed in the course of human activity aimed at satisfying his needs.

The peculiarity of emotions and feelings depends on the needs, intentions and aspirations of a person.

Feelings have a number of features:

1) polarity: joy - sadness, love - hatred, pleasure - suffering, etc. This polarity provides a basis for dividing feelings into positive and negative. If our needs are satisfied, then this causes us positive emotions; that which hinders the satisfaction of needs causes us negative emotions. Thus, positive emotions are pleasant feelings for a person, negative ones are unpleasant;

2) duality - the ability to experience two opposite feelings at the same time;

3) uncertainty - a short-term emotional reaction associated with an unsteady attitude to surrounding objects and phenomena.

Emotional shock - an emotional shock, expressed in a short-term disorganization of behavior. It manifests itself with a sudden fright, a flash of anger, in response to a joyful or tragic event, etc.

Allocate sthenic and asthenic emotions. Sthenic (from the Greek word "stenos" - strength) emotions cause an upsurge of strength, excitement, vivacity, tension. Asthenic (from the Greek "asthenos" - weakness, impotence) reduce the activity, energy of a person: this is melancholy, sadness, despondency, depression.

Depending on the individual characteristics of a person, the same feelings can manifest themselves both in sthenic and asthenic forms. (fear paralyzes one person, makes another resourceful, fast);

Sense functions:

1) regulating or directing - strong and persistent experiences are able to direct and support behavior;

2) evaluating or signaling - with the help of emotions, a person shows his attitude to an object or phenomenon.

Expression of emotions occurs through voice and movements:

1) mimic - movements of the muscles of the face;

2) pantomimic - body muscle movements, gestures.

In animals, emotions are closely related to the satisfaction of natural needs (self-preservation, nutrition, reproduction). A person, in addition to lower (animal) emotions associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of organic needs for food, housing, clothing, sexual needs, the need for sleep, etc., as a result of a social lifestyle and characteristics of activity, has acquired new emotions and feelings associated with satisfaction of cultural and social needs.

Emotional states are the result of brain activity. The focus of excitation that occurs in the cerebral cortex when an object is perceived, spreads to the subcortex, where the respiratory, cardiovascular and other physiological centers are located, causing changes in the work of the corresponding organs. With strong emotional experiences, excitation of the vegetative centers also occurs, manifested by increased sweating, tears, etc.

Unlike animals, human emotions can also manifest themselves in creative activity (works of art, literature, music).

107. Theories of emotions

Plato considered emotions to be evil. Aristotle wrote about the importance of educating feelings and emotions in children. The Stoics considered emotional distress to be a disease that should be treated.

XNUMXth century - the first two theories of emotions:

1) emotions are secondary states that depend on cognitive activity (I. Herbart);

2) emotions are primary, independent in nature and are closely related to the biological functions of the body.

XNUMXth century - "evolutionary" theory of emotions Ch. Darwin. Emotions and feelings of a person are of animal origin, appeared in the process of evolution of living beings, are vital adaptive mechanisms that contribute to the adaptation of the body to the environment. Movements, facial expressions, accompanying emotional states are the disappearing vestiges of the body's real adaptive reactions.

Theory of emotions James Lange. Emotions were considered in isolation from the entire psyche, as the sum of only organic sensations caused by changes in the activity of internal organs, in the bodily, motor sphere, in certain physical states with which they are associated. Reflected in the brain, these organic changes, through a feedback system, give rise to the corresponding emotional states (laughter, delight, fear, crying, anger, etc.), which are the root causes of emotions.

Theory of psychophysical parallelism W. Wundt. All expressive movements are the result of intraorganic changes in a person. Each emotional change is expressed by its corresponding external manifestation (movement).

Cannon and P. Bardom have shown in a number of experiments that the organic changes that occur during various emotional states are very similar, and the internal organs that should cause the onset of emotional states come into a state of excitement much more slowly than the emotions that arise. Stopping the flow of organic signals to the brain does not prevent the emergence of emotions. The appearance of the neuromuscular reaction of the body (organic changes) to the corresponding stimuli and the emotional experience associated with it occur almost simultaneously.

According to activation theory Lindsay-Hebb emotions arise as a result of disturbance and restoration of balance in the corresponding structures of the central nervous system under the influence of the reticular formation.

Cognitive consonance-dissonance theory L. Festinger. Positive emotions arise when the result obtained coincides with the intended goals (consonance). Negative emotions arise when expectations are at odds with reality (dissonance).

Cognitive-physiological concept S. Shekhter. Influence on the emotional experiences of a person in addition to bodily and other stimuli of a person's past experience and motivation.

Biological theory of emotions PC. AnokhinPositive emotions arise when the feedback coincides with or exceeds the expected, the lack of feedback generates negative emotions.

Information theory of emotions. P.V. Simonov showed that knowledge and awareness of the individual in some cases inhibit emotions, change the mood and behavior of the individual. According to Simonov, the magnitude of an emotional reaction is determined by the strength of the need to satisfy it in a given situation:

E \uXNUMXd F (P (In - Is)),

Where E is an emotion, its strength and quality, P is the magnitude and specificity of the actual need, F is an assessment of the possibility of satisfying this need on the basis of innate and in vivo acquired experience, In is information about the means that are predictively necessary to meet the existing need, Is is information about means that a person has at a given moment in time.

108. Functions of emotions

In the course of a long phylogenetic development, emotions have acquired a large number of functions, one of which is reflective function. It manifests itself in the motor, speech response of the body to events and phenomena that cause certain emotions.

Evaluation function emotions consists in determining the significance for the subject of this or that object or situation, the states of the organism and external influences. Emotional assessment can be formed not only on the basis of personal experience, but also as a result of watching a movie, reading a book, listening to music, as empathy for heroes and other people in the process of communication.

Regulatory function is the ability of emotions to influence the state of the body and human behavior. So, there are cases when, thanks to strong emotions, the functions of the limbs were restored or, on the contrary, their paralysis occurred.

Signal function consists in the ability of an experienced emotion to leave a trace in the psyche as a result of successful or unsuccessful actions, which is used in the future, influencing the body and human behavior. Even before a person realizes or understands on a rational level the meaning of a situation or object, emotions will signal to him about a possible pleasant or unpleasant outcome of events in the form of vague anxiety, fear, joyful excitement, etc.

Inducement function emotions lies in the fact that when needs and desires reach a certain intensity, they strongly encourage the subject to satisfy them. Lack or dissatisfaction with something causes emotional experiences, such as fear, anger, envy, hatred, etc., which determine the direction of the search, stimulate it.

Reinforcing function consists in the fact that after achieving a result (obtaining an object or performing an action) that can satisfy a need, a state of satisfaction arises that acts as a reward for achieving the goal. This feeling later becomes a force that encourages the achievement of such situations. If the result has not been achieved, negative emotions arise that "punish" a person for the implementation or non-implementation of certain actions and further encourage him to avoid such situations that impede the satisfaction of needs. Emotional reinforcement trains the body to behave in a particular situation. This function in the process of individual development precedes the stimulating one.

Differentiating function emotions. Thanks to the emotional attitude to what is happening, there is a choice from a countless number of impressions of those that meet the vital needs of a person. It contributes to the selectivity of perception, the direction of thinking and the presence of affective complexes.

synthesizing function emotions is manifested in a set of images associated with a situation in which a strong emotional experience arose. A new encounter with any of the objects of this situation can excite the experienced emotion. For example, things of a loved one, pictures seen with him, places of meeting with him cause sadness after his loss.

Mobilization function organs consists in the fact that strong emotional states (affects) that arise in critical situations contribute to the mobilization of all the forces of the body for the implementation of protective actions, which are incomparable in strength and swiftness with its usual capabilities.

Communicative function emotions are manifested in various expressive movements that are formed under the influence of society (a smile with a benevolent attitude, a cough with disagreement, a cry with fright, etc.).

109. Emotionality and its structure

There is an everyday and scientific view on the concept of emotionality. In the everyday sense, an emotional person is considered a person who reacts violently to the circumstances of life, characterized by such qualities as irascibility and imbalance or impressionability and vulnerability.

In the scientific aspect, emotionality is understood as a set of human properties that characterize the content, dynamics and quality of his emotions and feelings. The content of emotionality is determined by situations, phenomena and events that are especially significant for the subject, are associated with such personality parameters as his worldview, motivational orientation, system of values and basic ideas, etc. The dynamic properties of emotionality include features of the emergence, course and termination of emotional processes and their external expression. The attitude of the individual to the phenomena of reality is expressed by various qualitative characteristics of emotionality, expressed in a positive or negative sign, modality of dominant emotions.

Most psychologists believe that emotionality should be considered as one of the central components of temperament.

Differences in the emotionality of people and animals, according to I.P. Pavlov, depend on their type of nervous system and on the influences that the individual has been subjected to since birth. Thus, people who have had severe illnesses react more strongly to situations that cause anger and fear. Moreover, the more diseases a person has, the more acutely he reacts with appropriate emotional reactions. It has been established that emotionality usually has a selective character, while emotional upheavals have a more or less generalized effect.

According to the severity of emotional traits, there are:

1) emotional natures, which are characterized by high energy mobilization, which is difficult to control and generates violent emotional reactions. What they experience captures them, and they do not so much reflect and reason about the content of the object as they analyze their experiences;

2) sentimental natures, characterized by a penchant for contemplation; perceive the world through the prism of experiences and emotional states;

3) passionate natures - live a rich and intense emotionally rich life, are very active and full of energy;

4) non-emotional (cold) natures - these are people in whom feelings and emotions are manifested insignificantly and are not of great importance for life and activity.

This pattern allows us to consider emotionality as a different degree of sensitivity and as a different degree of violation of the mechanisms of regulation. According to this approach, the minimum emotionality will be found with low sensitivity and a high level of development of behavior regulation skills.

Emotionality has a complex structure, including:

1) emotional excitability - with increased emotional excitability, the functional level of activity changes in response to weaker external and internal influences;

2) the strength of emotions - the energization of activity depending on satisfaction or dissatisfaction;

3) motives;

4) anxiety is emotional excitability in a threatening situation, a tendency to experience anxiety, characterized by a low threshold for the occurrence of an anxiety reaction;

5) emotional stability - resistance to the action of emotional factors, control of impulses and drives;

6) sensitivity - increased sensitivity to events happening to a person;

7) emotivity - richness of nuances and refinement of emotional experiences.

110. Development of emotions

Emotional reactions in children begin to develop even before the birth of a child. The improvement of ultrasound diagnostics made it possible to determine that even in utero the fetus can respond to external influences by protruding the lips with displeasure and a grimace of a smile with positive emotions.

With the birth of the child begins to be exposed to various environmental factors, in response to which he formed positive or negative emotional reactions. Initially, they are associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of organic needs, such as sleep, food. However, children of infancy are also characterized by such emotions as fear, anger, which speaks of their innate character. At first they are unconscious. The child may be afraid of a large number of relatives who have come to meet him, just a new person or object that has not done him any harm.

Quite early in children, complex emotional reactions such as empathy and compassion begin to appear. Already at the age of one and a half to two years, a child is able to feel sorry for mom or dad, whom he offended, which indicates the appearance of not only compassion, but also feelings of repentance and guilt. Children are sensitive to the emotions of an adult and imitate them: they cry when their mother cries, they laugh when others laugh.

Play and exploratory behavior are of great importance for the development of emotions. It has been established that as the child grows and develops, the moment of experiencing pleasure in children's games shifts. Initially, the emotions of pleasure play an encouraging role - the baby rejoices at the moment of obtaining the desired result. Later they begin to fulfill a functional role - the child is pleased not only with the result, but also with the very process of activity, its content. The anticipation of pleasure, that is, the appearance of the emotion of pleasure at the beginning of play activity, appears in the child only by school age.

At an early age, manifestations of feelings are of an affective nature: they arise suddenly, proceed violently, but disappear just as quickly. Control over emotional behavior occurs in children only at senior preschool age in the process of relationships with other people, expanding the scope of communication, significantly activating their emotional world.

The instability of the emotional sphere of children causes the development of negative emotions in them. At 4,5 years, there is a peak in the development of children's aggressiveness, which then gradually fades away. The weakening of aggressiveness is facilitated by the development of social communication skills and stimulation of sensitivity to the experiences of others, games and fairy tales.

Signs of moral feelings first appear in a child under the influence of approval or censure.

At school age, children already have a fairly high level of control over their behavior, moral feelings continue to develop, for example, a sense of shame, and aesthetic feelings appear. They are expressed in the choice of clothes, toys, the desire to listen to music. The development of aesthetic feelings is facilitated by drawing, singing, music, visiting art galleries, theaters, concerts, and cinema.

A violent surge of emotions and a partial loss of control over them is noted in adolescence. This is connected both with the hormonal restructuring of the body, and with the physical changes that occur in the child's body, their awareness. At this age, social phobias predominate. Shyness increases, great importance is attached to the shortcomings of one's appearance and behavior, and anxiety increases. These phenomena usually disappear after the end of puberty.

111. Exploration of emotions and feelings

Sentiment Research carried out according to the method of color painting proposed by A.N. Lutoshkin. The test subject is offered a scale of the color range of moods, consisting of 3x3 cm squares of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, black and white, and the meaning of each color is explained: red - enthusiastic; orange - joyful; yellow - pleasant; green - calm, balanced; blue - sad; purple - alarming; black - extremely unsatisfied; white is hard to say.

Focusing on the designations of colors, the subjects are asked to choose from their color set the color that matches their mood today. Usually, in order to track mood dynamics, diagnostics are carried out daily for a week, month, etc.

The color of the card indicated by the test subjects is entered in the table (operational color matrix). In addition, the experimenter keeps his diary of observations of the subjects, where he fixes whether the self-diagnosed mood corresponds to the actually observed one, the main events of the day that could affect the mood (proximity of the weekend, troubles at work, in the family, etc.).

Processing of the results consists in counting the frequency of occurrence of each color and assessing deviations from the norm in the experiences, emotional states of the subject:

1) too prolonged state of sadness, anxiety, dissatisfaction, or vice versa emotional arousal;

2) inconsistency of emotional states with the emerging life situations;

3) sharp polarity in the tone of emotional states;

4) prolonged monotony of manifested emotional states.

The emotional state of a person can be influenced by chronic diseases, the climate in the family, the study group, etc.

Research of reactive and personal anxiety is carried out according to the Khanin self-assessment scale, consisting of 40 statements. The first 20 statements, located on the front side of the form, relate to the present (reactive) state of the subject, they determine the state of reactive anxiety. The second twenty statements, located on the back of the form, show the state of health and moods usually characteristic of the subject, and personal anxiety is determined by it. The subject is asked to read each sentence and cross out the corresponding number on the right, depending on how he usually feels (1 - if he disagrees with the answer, 2 - if the answer is "Perhaps so", 3 - if the answer is "Correct", 4 - if the answer is "Absolutely right"). At the same time, the subject is asked not to think about the questions for a long time, since there are no right or wrong answers.

The indicator of reactive anxiety (RT) is calculated by the formula:

RT = S1 + S2 + 35,

where S1 is the sum of the numbers crossed out by the subject on the front side of the form for the scale items containing statements of a negative orientation (for example, "I'm excited"); and S2 is the sum of the remaining crossed out figures on the front of the form.

The indicator of personal anxiety (LT) is determined by the formula:

LT=S1/S2

where S1 is the sum of the crossed out numbers on the reverse side of the form for the scale items containing negative statements (for example, "I have a spleen", etc.); and S2 is the sum of the remaining crossed out figures on the reverse side of the form.

Reactive and personal anxiety is considered low when RT and LT are below 30, moderate - at 31-45, high - at 46 or more.

A high level of reactive anxiety affects attention, precise movements. High personal anxiety can be caused by neurotic conflict, emotional and nervous breakdowns, or psychosomatic illnesses.

112. Will and arbitrariness

Will - it is a conscious active self-determination and self-regulation of behavior and activity, expressed in the ability to overcome internal and external difficulties in the performance of purposeful actions and deeds.

Actions and behavior of a person can be involuntary (constriction and expansion of the pupil, swallowing, withdrawal of the hand when touching a hot object, impulsive behavior, behavior in a state of passion) and arbitrary or volitional, aimed at achieving the set goal. Voluntary actions are based on involuntary movements and actions.

L.S. Vygotsky considers arbitrariness as "the ability to control oneself, one's external and internal activities," i.e., arbitrariness is seen as a process of mastering the means of awareness, control, and achievement of something. The concept of will is understood as "the presence of stable and conscious desires and motives for behavior." While voluntary action is directed at oneself, at the means of mastering one's own behavior, the will is considered as the cause of activity, volitional action is directed outward.

Will, being a mental process, is also considered as an aspect of most other important mental processes and phenomena, as the ability of a person to arbitrarily control his behavior.

The main functions of the will:

1) initiating - consists in inducing (initiating) one or another action, behavior, activity;

2) stabilizing - consists in maintaining activity at the proper level in the event of internal and external interference;

3) inhibitory - consists in the inhibition of other behaviors that are not consistent with the main goals of the activity and arise under the influence of strong desires and motives.

The will manifests itself in response to external (opposition of people, environment, lack of time) and internal (fatigue, illness, strong desires) difficulties that arise on the way to the goal.

However, not every action aimed at overcoming an obstacle is volitional. The most important feature of volitional action aimed at overcoming obstacles is the consciousness of the significance of the goal set, for which one must fight, the consciousness of the need to achieve it. The greater the significance of the goal, the more obstacles a person is able to overcome. Volitional actions can also include such movements that, in the course of the formation of a habit, were automated and lost their originally conscious character.

Volitional actions are distinguished into:

1) simple (lie down, sit down, get up, open the door, etc.);

2) complex - include a number of simpler ones (to satisfy your hunger, you need to go to the refrigerator, take out food, warm it up, etc.);

3) conscious;

4) impulsive, the degree of awareness of which is greatly reduced.

Signs of volitional action:

1) awareness of freedom, not the predetermination of the ongoing actions, behavior;

2) obligatory objective determinism of any action, which can be:

3) conscious;

4) unconscious;

5) manifestation of personality in action as fully and clearly as possible, because volitional regulation acts as the highest level of mental regulation as such.

The purposefulness underlying the will requires certain thought processes to solve various problems that arise on the way to the goal, to compare the goal of the action and its results and make adjustments.

Volitional actions are directly related to our feelings, desires and needs, which can both stimulate volitional actions and hinder the achievement of the goal. In this case, a person has to make strong-willed efforts to resist the negative effects of emotions.

113. Physiological basis of will

Volitional actions are associated with the activity of Betz's giant pyramidal cells, in which impulses for movement are generated. Conventionally, pyramidal cells, depending on their location and functions, are divided into three groups. Cells located in the upper sections of the anterior central gyrus send impulses to the lower extremities. Cells lying in the middle sections send impulses to the hand. In the lower sections there are cells that activate the muscles of the tongue, lips, and larynx. With the defeat of certain pyramidal cells in a person, paralysis of the organs of movement corresponding to them occurs. The fibers that make up the pyramidal pathway originate from Betz cells. They go through the brain and spinal cord to the muscles on the opposite side of the body. Betz cells and the nerve pathways emanating from them are the motor apparatus of the cerebral cortex.

Due to a certain organization of the interaction of individual parts of the brain, voluntary movements are performed not in isolation from each other, but in a complex system of purposeful action. In the organization of voluntary movements, an important role is played by the brain regions located behind the anterior central gyrus and providing the organization of kinesthetic sensitivity necessary for the regulation of movements. When these areas are affected, a person ceases to feel his own movements and is not able to perform even relatively simple actions, for example, to take any object that is near him. These difficulties are connected with the fact that a person selects the wrong movements that he needs.

The premotor cortex, which lies anterior to the anterior central gyrus, also takes part in the organization of movements. It provides smooth movement. The defeat of this part of the cortex leads to the fact that human movements become awkward, the person ceases to own the acquired skill, and the development of complex motor skills in these cases is impossible.

The purposefulness of volitional action is determined by the corresponding motives, which must be retained throughout the entire volitional action. Otherwise, the action being performed will be interrupted or replaced by others. The purposefulness of actions is determined by the prefrontal areas of the brain located in the frontal lobes. The defeat of these areas leads to apraxia, which manifests itself in a violation of the voluntary regulation of movements and actions. A person suffering from apraxia, having begun to perform any action, immediately stops or changes it as a result of some random influence, which makes it impossible to carry out an act of will. The behavior of such patients is characterized by uncontrollability, fragmentation of actions.

Another type of pathology of the will is abulia, which manifests itself in the absence of impulses for activity, in the inability to make a decision and carry out the necessary action, although the need for it is recognized. It is caused by pathological inhibition of the cortex, as a result of which the intensity of impulses for action is significantly below the optimal level.

The performance of volitional actions is associated with the second signaling system, which carries out the conscious regulation of human behavior. It activates the motor part of human behavior and is a trigger for thinking, imagination, memory, regulates attention, evokes feelings and thus influences the formation of motives for volitional actions, that is, the reasons that induce a person to act. Motives are primary and secondary. The motives of volitional actions are based on needs, emotions, feelings, interests, inclinations and beliefs that are formed in the process of life.

114. Theories of will

In antiquity, purposeful or conscious human behavior was considered only from the standpoint of its compliance with generally accepted norms, the rational principles of nature and life, and the rules of logic.

This concept is also shared by a number of modern scientists who oppose the special nature of the will, believing that the concepts of goal and awareness are categories of intellectual behavior.

In the Middle Ages, man was regarded as a passive principle, as a meeting place for external forces. The will was recognized as a manifestation of higher forces, a certain mind, and was often endowed with an independent existence and even personified in specific forces, turning into good or evil beings.

In the Renaissance, there was a change in views on man as a person. People began to recognize the right to creativity and even to make a mistake. The main value of the individual was considered to be free will.

From this period begins the development of a theory describing the nature of the will.

Voluntarism theory recognized the will as a special, supranatural force. According to this doctrine, volitional acts are not determined by anything, but they themselves determine the course of mental processes. Later, A. Schopenhauer and E. Hartmann declared the will to be a cosmic force, a blind and unconscious first principle from which all mental manifestations of a person originate. According to Schopenhauer, consciousness and intellect are secondary manifestations of the will. Voluntarism opposed the volitional principle to the objective laws of nature and society, asserted the independence of the human will from the surrounding reality.

The theory of will as free choice. According to this theory, will and reason were considered as one phenomenon. B. Spinoza considers the will as an awareness of external determination, which is subjectively perceived as one's own voluntary decision, as inner freedom. Freedom of choice was seen as a practical expression of free will.

Existential theory of will. M. Heidegger, K. Jaspers, and others considered freedom as an absolutely free will, not conditioned by any external social circumstances. A person is initially free and cannot be associated with society by any moral obligations or responsibility. He can't answer for anything. The introduction of social norms was seen as the suppression of his free will. Such a view of the will is contrary to modern ideas about man as a social being. In addition, the absolute rejection of all norms and values is not possible, since it entails the establishment of new norms and values.

Reflex theory of will was developed by I.P. Pavlov, who considered the will as an "instinct of freedom", as a manifestation of the activity of a living organism when it encounters obstacles that limit this activity. Will was considered as a reflex response to an influencing stimulus. The error of this interpretation of the will is that it implies the dependence of the will on external conditions, and, consequently, the volitional act does not fully depend on the person.

Psychoanalytic concepts of the will consider as a source of people's actions a kind of biological energy of a living organism transformed into a mental form. For Freud, this is the psychosexual energy of sexual desire; for Jung, these are universal archetypes of behavior and thinking embedded in every culture; for Adler - the desire for power and social domination.

According to modern views, the motives of volitional actions arise as a result of the active interaction of a person with the outside world and society. Free will implies knowledge of the universal laws of nature and society and the choice of adequate behavior.

115. Structure of volitional action

Volitional action occurs in several stages.

At the first stage, there is an awareness of the goal and the motive associated with it. A person sets goals in order to satisfy his needs, weighing the many motives that may or may not fit the goal. In the case when the needs are small and its signals are not clearly reflected in the mind, the desire for the goal is vague and is called attraction. Drives are usually vague, because the need is small, its signals are not clearly reflected in the mind. A clear awareness of the goal and the motive that causes the desire for the goal is called desire.

Not every desire leads to action. At first, it is evaluated by a person, on the basis of his existing system of values, receiving a certain emotional coloring. If there are several motives, there is an alignment of certain priorities between motives according to their intensity and significance. In the selection process, a "struggle of motives" takes place, which becomes stronger, the more weighty the opposing motives, the more similarity between them in strength and significance. A protracted struggle of motives can provoke an experience of internal conflict.

The struggle of motives ends with a decision, which may be accompanied by a feeling of relief when certain that the decision was made correctly, or anxiety in the absence of such confidence.

The next stage of volitional action is the planning of ways and means to achieve the set task. At the same time, there is an assessment of the complexity and moral and ethical properties of the ways and means to achieve the goal, which is manifested by neuropsychic stress. The plan can be sketched or detailed.

The executive stage of volitional action may not occur immediately after the decision and the planning stage. When postponing a decision for a long time, they speak of the intention to execute the decision made. Usually this concerns complex activities (moving to another city, getting a profession). The essence of intention consists in the internal preparation of a delayed action and is a direction fixed by a decision towards the achievement of a goal.

To implement a planned action, a conscious volitional effort is necessary - a state of internal tension, or activity, which causes the mobilization of a person's internal resources necessary to perform the planned action. Volitional efforts require considerable energy.

In contrast to muscle tension in volitional effort, external movements can be represented minimally, and internal tension can be very significant. However, any volitional effort is to some extent associated with muscle tension. So, when reading a complex text, thinking, we strain the muscles of the forehead, eyes, etc. However, this does not equate muscular and volitional efforts.

The volitional efforts shown by us in various and specific conditions differ in intensity. The intensity of volitional efforts depends on both external and internal obstacles that the performance of volitional action encounters. In addition to situational factors, there are also relatively stable factors that determine the intensity of volitional efforts (the worldview of the individual, moral stability, the level of self-organization, principles and ideals).

When fulfilling the decision made, a person not only acts, but also constantly controls and corrects his actions, comparing them with the ideal image of the goal or its part.

The execution of a decision can be manifested in an external action or in refraining from any external action (internal, volitional action).

116. Strong-willed qualities

Distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary volitional qualities.

Primary volitional qualities appear in ontogenesis first and manifest themselves at the personal level. These include:

1) strength of will - volitional property of the individual, which consists in the ability to overcome significant difficulties that arise on the way to achieving the goal;

2) endurance and self-control - a volitional property, expressed in the ability to restrain one's emotions, feelings, impulsive desires and rash actions, the ability to control oneself and perform a planned action. Endurance and self-control are manifestations of the inhibitory function of the will;

3) perseverance - volitional quality of a person, manifested in the ability to direct and control behavior for a long time in accordance with the intended goal. Perseverance is manifested not only in the use of existing circumstances, but also in their independent creation.

Secondary volitional qualities develop later than the primary ones and manifest themselves in unity with the character:

1) purposefulness - volitional quality, manifested in the ability to set and achieve socially significant goals. Distinguish:

a) strategic purposefulness - characterized by the ability to be guided by certain principles and ideals;

b) operational purposefulness - manifested in the ability to set clear goals for individual actions and not deviate from them in the process of achieving them;

c) perseverance - a person's desire to achieve the goal, even in very difficult situations;

d) stubbornness - insisting on inappropriate actions contrary to the arguments of reason;

2) decisiveness - volitional quality, which manifests itself in a quick and thoughtful choice of a goal, determining ways to achieve it. There are several types of decisiveness:

a) reasonable determination - determination based on reasonable reflection. It manifests itself in the case when the opposing motives begin to gradually fade away and only one motive remains - one decision, which is perceived quite calmly;

b) random decisiveness is manifested in cases where hesitation and indecision are too long. A person in this case is more likely to make the wrong decision than not to make any decision. The choice of a person is based on a random circumstance that makes one of the options more promising than others;

c) automatic decisiveness manifests itself in the absence of motivating reasons, when a person, wanting to avoid an unpleasant feeling of indecision, begins to act as if automatically, simply striving to move forward;

d) moral determination is observed when changing the scale of values, which leads to an internal turning point and determination to act in a specific direction;

e) volitional decisiveness arises in those cases when a person, having no rational grounds, considers a certain course of action to be preferable. In this case, a person with the help of the will strengthens a motive that by itself could not subjugate the rest.

3) independence - a volitional property of a person, expressed in the ability to set goals on one's own initiative, find ways to achieve them and carry out the decisions made. An independent person is able to assess the situation without outside help, set a goal and realize it, etc.

Tertiary volitional qualities appear last and are associated with moral and value orientations:

1) discipline - volitional quality, characterized by the ability to comply with the established order;

2) adherence to principles - in the left property, manifested by the ability to act in accordance with one's principles, etc.

117. Development of strong-willed qualities

Will begins to form in a child quite late compared to other mental processes. The development of volitional regulation of behavior begins from the moment the child masters speech.

Its formation goes in three directions:

1) transformation of involuntary mental processes into arbitrary ones;

2) gaining control over their behavior;

3) development of volitional qualities of a person

The first desires of the child are characterized by great instability and uncertainty. Desires acquire a more or less stable character only by the fourth year of life. At the same time, the appearance

struggle of motives.

The development of volitional qualities occurs in stages. Initially, basic primary volitional qualities are formed. On their basis, secondary volitional qualities are formed. Tertiary volitional qualities appear towards the end of the preschool - the beginning of the school period, when the child can already control his behavior. They require a sufficiently high level of development and formation of moral attitudes, which are formed under the influence of training and education, in the process of constant interaction with adults.

In the first years of life, the child seeks to imitate the actions of adults. Therefore, the nature of the emerging moral attitudes of the child largely depends on the moral attitudes of the adult. Only having gained his own experience in the process of mental development, the child begins to analyze the actions of an adult and draw appropriate conclusions.

Of great importance in the development of the child's volitional qualities are games, which, depending on the type of play activity, affect one or another volitional quality. Thus, the first constructive object games contribute to the accelerated formation of arbitrary regulation of actions. Consolidation of volitional qualities occurs in the plot-role-playing collective games, which strengthen the self-regulation of actions. In the developed form of role play, the sequence of actions of the role that the child assumes has for him, as it were, the force of a law to which he must subordinate his actions. Attempts to break this sequence cause a violent protest of children. A voluntarily assumed role forces the child to perform certain actions in a strict sequence. The pleasure derived from the game is associated precisely with overcoming immediate impulses, with obeying the rule contained in the role. In the game, the child begins to correlate his desires with the "idea", with the image of the ideal adult.

The development of the will is facilitated by the creative activity of the child, his enthusiasm for any activity accompanied by systematic work (drawing, modeling, music or sports).

Parents play an important role in the development of the will. In an effort to give the child a comprehensive development and at the same time, making rather high demands on him, they can count on the fact that the child will not have serious problems with volitional regulation of activity.

The development of volitional qualities in a child contributes to the formation of discipline in him, which not only helps to understand the need to comply with certain rules of behavior, but also provides him with internal discipline, expressed in the ability to regulate and compare his desires with the conditions of real activity.

The school plays a particularly important role in the education of volitional qualities, which imposes a number of requirements on the child, without the fulfillment of which school education itself cannot be carried out normally (sitting at a desk without getting up, limiting conversations, preparing lessons, etc.). The teacher is an example of discipline and other strong-willed qualities.

118. Examination of the will

Perseverance Research consists of three series of experiments. In each series, the subject is sequentially presented with blanks with a set of words and asked to make a meaningful sentence from all the words in the set. In the first and second series of experiments, the difficulty of compiling sentences is almost the same; in the third series, it is almost impossible to compose a sentence, but the subject is not told about it.

The time for compiling the proposal is fixed using a stopwatch.

The processing of the results begins with checking the correctness of the tasks performed by the subjects:

If the first two sentences are correct, then the persistence indicator "Рн" is calculated:

where T1 is the time spent on making the first proposal;

T2 - time spent on the second proposal;

T3 is the time spent trying to make a third sentence.

The level of persistence is considered low at pH from 0 to 1,9; medium - at pH from 2,0 to 2,9; high - at pH of 3,0 or more.

When analyzing the results, one should take into account the length of time spent by the subject on solving problems. The more time spent, the more perseverance a person has. Perseverance is the quality of a person associated with the ability and desire to achieve a goal, overcoming external and internal (psychological) obstacles. The results of the study must be compared with the success in the educational and / or labor activity of the subject and taken into account when drawing up a program for the development of self-regulation and self-education.

Research on impulsivity carried out individually or in a group using a test questionnaire by V.A. Losenkov, consisting of 20 questions, each of which is given a four-point scale of answers. The subject is asked to read each question carefully and circle the number of the chosen answer. At the same time, he is warned that there are no "bad" and "good" answers, you need to choose the answer that first came to mind.

Processing and analysis of the results consists in calculating the index of impulsivity "Pi", i.e., the sum of points scored on the scales of the entire test questionnaire. The greater the value of the impulsivity index, the greater the impulsivity: "Pi" 66-80 - high impulsivity, 35-65 - moderate, below 34 - low.

People with a low level of impulsivity are purposeful, have clear value orientations, show perseverance in achieving their goals, and strive to complete the work they have begun.

High impulsivity speaks of insufficient self-control in communication and activities, lack of focus, instability of interests and requires psychological correction.

The study of the subjective control is carried out individually or in a group using a test questionnaire of 44 statements developed by E.F. Bazhins and others based on the J. Rotter locus of control scale. The subject is asked to carefully read the statements and answer whether he agrees with this statement (a "+" sign is put on the form) or not ("-"). At the same time, he is warned that there are no "bad" and "good" answers, you need to choose the answer that first came to mind.

Processing and analysis of the results is carried out using a special key, while the indicator of the general internality "Io" is calculated (the sum of the matches of the answers of the subject with the answers given in the key).

Depending on the localization of control, two polar types of personalities are possible: external (attributes responsibility to external forces - "Io" from 22 to 44) and internal (attributes responsibility to one's own abilities and efforts - "Io" from 0 to 21).

119. The concept of communication

Communication - this is a multifaceted process of interaction between people, generated by the needs of joint activities.

In the process of communication, a message is transmitted and received using verbal and non-verbal means. The process of communication includes both direct and feedback, resulting in the exchange of information between the participants in communication, its perception and knowledge by them, as well as their influence on each other and interaction.

Communication is inherent in all higher living beings. Human communication is the most perfect type of communication, since the process of communication occurs consciously and is mediated by speech.

Communication structure:

1) communicative-informative component - the transfer of information and feedback, which is based on psychological contact;

2) the cognitive aspect is based on mutual perception and understanding of each other by people;

3) interactive aspect - the interaction of people with each other.

The structure of interaction in communication:

1) physical contact;

2) movement in space;

3) joint group or mass action;

4) spiritual verbal contact;

5) non-verbal informational contact.

Interactions are:

1) intrapersonal;

2) interpersonal;

3) personal-group;

4) personal-mass;

5) intergroup;

6) mass-group.

Communication is characterized by the presence of content and goals.

Content is understood as information that is transmitted in the process of communication from one living being to another. This information may contain information about the internal motivational state of a living being, about existing needs, counting on potential participation in their satisfaction. Thanks to communication, data on emotional states (sadness, suffering, joy, anger, satisfaction, etc.) can be transmitted from one being to another, aimed at setting up another living being for contact.

Through communication from one living being to another, information can be transmitted about the state of the external environment, signals about danger or about the presence somewhere nearby of positive, biologically significant factors (food, water, another creature).

The content of human communication is much broader than that of animals. In the process of communication, people exchange information with each other, representing knowledge about the world, rich life experience, knowledge, abilities, skills and abilities. Human communication is characterized by multi-subject and versatility.

The purpose of communication in animals may be to induce another living being to certain actions, a warning that it is necessary to refrain from any action.

The goals of human communication are much broader, they include the transfer and acquisition of objective knowledge about the world, the coordination of reasonable actions of people in their joint activities, training and education, the establishment and clarification of personal and business relationships, the satisfaction of social, cultural, cognitive, creative, aesthetic, intellectual and moral needs.

When communicating, there are three zones of perception of spaces a:

1) intimate (20-30 centimeters to the human body) - only very close people are admitted, except in cases where such contacts are caused by social necessity

2) personal (one meter to the human body) - people with whom equal relations are established are allowed;

3) social (three meters to the human body) - almost everyone is admitted except for those who are not pleasant to a person and cause him discomfort.

Knowledge of the patterns of communication is very important for both a teacher and a doctor, lawyer, businessman.

120. Types of communication

Types of communication by content:

1) material - the exchange of objects and products of activity, which serve as a means of satisfying their actual needs;

2) cognitive - the transfer of information that broadens one's horizons, improves and develops abilities;

3) conditioning - exchange of mental or physiological states, exercising influence on each other, designed to bring a person into a certain physical or mental state;

4) activity - exchange of actions, operations, skills).

5) motivational communication consists in the transfer of certain motives, attitudes or readiness to act in a certain direction to each other.

Types of communication by goals:

biological communication is associated with the satisfaction of basic organic needs and is necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the organism;

social communication is aimed at expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, personal growth of the individual.

Types of communication by means:

1) direct communication - occurs with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature: hands, head, torso, vocal cords, etc.

2) mediated communication - associated with the use of special means and tools for organizing communication and exchanging information (natural (stick, thrown stone, footprint on the ground, etc.) or cultural (sign systems, writing symbols on various media, printing, radio, television, etc.) items).

3) direct communication is based on personal contacts and direct perception of each other by communicating people in the act of communication itself (for example, bodily contacts, conversations of people with each other, etc.).

4) indirect communication occurs through intermediaries, which may be other people (for example, negotiations between conflicting parties at the interstate, international, group, family levels).

Other types of communication:

1) business communication is a private moment of any joint activity of people. It serves as a means of improving the quality of these activities;

2) personal communication is characterized by a focus mainly around psychological problems of an internal nature, those interests and needs that deeply and intimately affect a person’s personality (search for the meaning of life, determining one’s attitude to a significant person, to what is happening around, resolving any internal conflict, etc.).

3) instrumental communication is communication that is not an end in itself, is not stimulated by an independent need, but pursues some other goal, except for obtaining satisfaction from the very act of communication;

4) targeted communication serves as a means of satisfying the need for communication.

5) non-verbal communication occurs with the help of facial expressions, gestures and pantomime, through direct sensory or bodily contacts (tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and other sensations and images received from another person). Non-verbal forms and means of communication are inherent not only to humans, but also to some higher animals (dogs, monkeys and dolphins). In most cases, non-verbal forms and means of human communication are innate. They allow people to interact with each other, achieving mutual understanding at the emotional and behavioral levels;

6) verbal communication is the prerogative of a person and, as a prerequisite, involves the acquisition of a language. It provides a person with broad communication opportunities and is much richer than all types and forms of non-verbal communication, although in life it cannot completely replace it.

121. Communication and activities

Communication is the first social need of the child, his first activity. Through it, the child masters all other activities, whether it be play, study or work. At the beginning of the development of the child, communication is the only kind of his activity and therefore is of particular importance. The infant's need for communication is satisfied in direct-emotional communication with an adult. At first, this is non-verbal communication: the child does not understand words, but understands affectionate intonation, stroking, etc. The lack of such communication leads to a slow emotional development of the child (“hospitalism effect”), which hinders his overall development. Gradually, the child begins to master passive speech: he understands the words addressed to him, reacts to them properly. At the age of one and a half years, the child gradually begins to develop active speech: he first pronounces individual syllables, then words and whole sentences.

At each age stage in the process of personality formation, communication with adults performs specific functions. At the first stages of development, the functions, forms, and content of communication with adults are directly related to the child's mastery of the objective world. In the process of communicating with adults, the child develops a need to communicate with other people, an emotional attitude towards them and the world, mental processes develop, subject-manipulative activity. Actually, communicative activity stands out only in the sixth or seventh year of a child's life.

Through communication, the child comprehends such a form of activity as a game. In the beginning, the games are objective in nature. Gradually, in the process of communicating with peers and adults, the child begins to realize his own "I" and master role-playing games. Game communication contributes to the formation and consolidation of discipline, the child learns to control his behavior, correlating it with the appropriate role.

Communication with adults during primary school age remains one of the leading factors in the development of a child's personality. However, by the end of this stage, communication with peers begins to play an increasingly significant role.

In adolescence, communication with peers comes to the fore. The main function of this communication is to form in the process of joint activity the ability to build relationships with others depending on various tasks and requirements, to navigate in the personal characteristics and qualities of people, to consciously accept or not accept the norms adopted in the team.

Communication with adults is a necessary condition for the normal mental and personal development of the child. This has been convincingly proven by studies, the so-called. "Mowgli children", who at the beginning of their development, for one reason or another, were deprived of communication with people. They only interacted with animals. As a result, these children did not develop speech, they lagged far behind their peers in mental development, it was difficult to call them personalities.

Communication has the ability to greatly facilitate activity. So, no matter how difficult the task may seem to one person, it will be easily solved by the team. Communication is especially important when solving creative problems.

In joint activities, a person must, if necessary, unite with other people to receive information from them, to report back. That is, communication acts as part of the activity (communication of the first kind). However, having produced a product or service, a person thereby provides communication of the second kind - communication as a continuation of oneself in another.

Thus, communication and activity constitute an inseparable unity.

122. Development of communication

Distinguish between the development of communication of living beings in phylo- and ontogenesis.

Development of communication in phylogenesis related to the enrichment of its content and goals. In phylogeny, the content of communication is enriched with new information, which contains information about the biological, internal states of the body, about the vital properties of the external environment (animal level). At the level of human communication, it is enriched with information of a cognitive nature, which expresses objective knowledge about the world, independent of the actual needs of a living being, presented in the form of concepts. Changing the needs of communicating organisms leads to the enrichment of the goals of communication.

The development of means of communication in phylo- and ontogenesis has many similarities and occurs in several directions:

1) the allocation of special organs that are a means of communication (hands, language);

2) the development of expressive forms of movements (gestures, facial expressions, pantomimics);

3) the invention and use of sign systems: means of encoding and transmitting information;

4) development and improvement of technical means of storing, converting and transmitting information used in human communication (print, radio, television, telephone, fax, magnetic digital and other methods of technical recording, etc.).

Communication originated at the earliest stages of the development of living beings. In the beginning it was biochemical communication (bacteria and protozoa). In the process of evolutionary development, there was an improvement in the means of communication, the replacement of some means of communication by others. So, the main means of communication of bees is pantomime, fish - ultrasound, amphibians, birds and mammals - sounds, facial expressions, pantomime. Herd animals have a more developed communication system, they exchange biologically significant information with each other, protect, support each other's life.

Development of communication in ontogeny largely repeats the development of communication in phylogenesis.

Stages of development of communication in ontogenesis:

1) early infancy (from birth to 2-3 months) is characterized by the presence of biological contact in terms of the content of communication, the purpose of which is to satisfy the organic needs of the child. Primitive facial expressions and motor activity serve as the main means of communication;

2) infancy (from 2-3 months to 1,5 years) - the beginning of cognitive communication associated with the beginning of the functioning of the main sense organs and the emergence of a need for new impressions, the emergence of coordinated, verbal-non-verbal communication. The main means of communication are facial expressions, gestures, pantomime;

3) early preschool childhood (from 1,5 years to 3 years) - there is an appearance of business and play communication associated with the emergence of objective activity and play. The main means of communication are still facial expressions, gestures, pantomime, speech is developing;

4) late preschool childhood (from 3 to 6-7 years old) is characterized by the formation of arbitrariness in the choice and use of various natural (language, facial expressions, gestures) and man-made means of communication (telephone, books, etc.). The development of plot-role communication generated by inclusion in role-playing games. The main means of communication is speech.

5) school age (from 7 to 16 years old) - there is an enrichment of the content of communication, a variety of goals and an improvement in the means of communication. There is a distinction between business and personal communication.

For an adult, the main natural means of communication is speech, which is supplemented by a variety of man-made means of communication (telephone, fax, correspondence, Internet, etc.).

123. Groups and collectives

Group - it is a community of people united according to some principle.

Group types:

1) a conditional group - a community of people that exists nominally and is distinguished by some sign (gender, age, profession, etc.). People included in such a group do not have direct interpersonal relationships, they may not know anything about each other;

2) a real group - a community of people united by real relationships;

3) a permanent group - exists for a long time (political party, school, institute, etc.);

4) temporary group - there is a short period of time (train compartment, people in the cinema, etc.);

5) a large group is a social community, the members of which, without having direct contacts with each other, are connected indirectly by the psychological mechanisms of group communication;

6) small group - a small group of people (up to 30-40 people) who are in direct communication, united by a common social activity (family, laboratory, class, etc.). Small groups are the main microelements of society. Signs of small groups are the presence of a permanent goal of joint activities and relationships, the separation and differentiation of personal roles, the presence of emotional relationships between members of the group, the presence of an organizing principle;

7) the contact group consists of people who have common goals and interests in a particular area of life and activity;

8) formal group - a group created on the basis of official documents (class, school, party, etc.). Between the members of such a group, business relations are established, provided for by documents, which can be supplemented by personal likes and dislikes;

9) informal group - a community of people who are connected by common sympathies, closeness of views, beliefs, tastes, etc. Official documents in such a group do not matter. The group breaks up when common interests disappear.

Psychological characteristics of the group are group interests, needs, opinions, values, norms and goals.

According to psychological characteristics, there are:

1) membership groups;

2) a reference group is a real or imaginary group whose norms serve as a model. Reference groups may be real or imagined, positive or negative, may or may not coincide with membership. They perform a normative function and the function of social comparison.

Any social group goes through a number of stages in its development:

1) the stage of association - the stage of formation of a group in which relationships are mediated only by personally significant goals (a group of friends, pals);

2) the stage of cooperation - the formation of a group that differs in a really operating organizational structure, interpersonal relations are of a business nature, subject to the achievement of the required result in the performance of a specific task in a certain type of activity;

3) the stage of the collective - the highest form of development of the social community. This is a time-stable organizational group of interacting people with specific governing bodies, united by the goals of joint socially useful activities and the complex dynamics of formal (business) and informal relationships between group members. A special form of the team is the educational team. It is the object and result of conscious and purposeful influences of teachers, curators, which determine many of its features (types and nature of activities, number of members, organizational structure, etc.). At the same time, the educational team is a relatively independent developing phenomenon, which is subject to special socio-psychological patterns.

124. Interpersonal perception

Interpersonal perception - perception, understanding and evaluation by people of each other.

Unlike the perception of inanimate objects, interpersonal perception is characterized by greater partiality, which is manifested in the fusion of cognitive and emotional components, in a more pronounced evaluative and value coloring, and its dependence on the motivational and semantic structure of the perceiving subject's activity.

Structure of interpersonal perception:

1) the subject of interpersonal perception;

2) the object of interpersonal perception;

3) the process of interpersonal perception.

Three factors contribute to the formation of the first impression of a person:

1) superiority factor - launches a scheme of social perception, when the observer feels the superiority of the partner in some important parameter for him - mind, height, financial situation, etc. A person who surpasses the observer in any significant parameter is rated much higher by him in other parameters . To start this scheme, the less effort is required, the more insecure the observer feels at the moment, in this particular situation. For example, in an extreme situation, people often trust those whom they would not listen to in a calm environment;

2) attraction factor - launches a scheme called the attractiveness stereotype, according to which what is outwardly attractive is good. At the same time, people tend to overestimate a person in terms of other important socio-psychological parameters;

3) observer attitude factor - includes a partner's perception scheme, which is based on the nature of the relationship to the observer. People who treat us well, we tend to evaluate positively.

Mechanisms of interpersonal perception:

1) identification - understanding another person by identifying him with himself;

2) socio-psychological reflection - understanding the other on the basis of thinking for him;

3) empathy - understanding another person through sympathy for him;

4) stereotyping - perception and evaluation of a person through the distribution of the characteristics of a social group to him, etc.

"Effects" of interpersonal perception:

1) halo effect - the formation of a specific attitude towards the observed through the directed attribution of certain qualities to it: the information received about a person is superimposed on the image that was created in advance. The previously existing image plays the role of a "halo" that prevents one from seeing the real features and manifestations of the object of perception. The halo effect is manifested in the fact that a general favorable impression leads to positive assessments of the known and unknown qualities of the perceived (Polyanna effect"), with a general unfavorable impression, negative assessments prevail ("devilish effect);

2) the effect of "primacy" (or "order") consists in the fact that with conflicting data about this person after the first meeting, the information that was received earlier is perceived as more significant and has a greater impact on the overall impression of the person;

3) novelty effect lies in the fact that the latter, that is, newer information, turns out to be more significant, acts in situations of perception of a familiar person;

4) projection effect - when we tend to ascribe our own merits to a pleasant interlocutor, and our own shortcomings to an unpleasant one;

5) effect of mean error - this is a tendency to soften the assessment of the most striking features of another person towards the average;

6) the effect or phenomenon of stereotyping in interpersonal perception - the assessment of people by their belonging to any category (sex, age, skin color, etc.).

Author: Cheldyshova N.B.

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