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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Metrology, standardization and certification. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
1. IMPROVING THE QUALITY, SAFETY AND COMPETITIVENESS OF PRODUCTS (SERVICES) Standardization, metrology and conformity assessment (certification) are tools for ensuring the safety and quality of products, works and services. Technical legislation, standardization and conformity assessment determine the level of safety and quality of products and, therefore, are the most important tools for the competitiveness of products. Today, standardization is part of a modern business strategy. Its influence and tasks cover all spheres of public life. Thus, standards for processes and documents (management, shipping, technical) contain the "rules of the game" that industry and trade specialists must know and follow in order to conclude mutually beneficial transactions, and technical regulation techniques are tools to ensure not only security, competitiveness, but also effective partnership of the manufacturer, customer and seller at all levels of management. Initially, standards are closely related to trade. The free movement of goods and services around the world without trade barriers is, of course, the burning desire of every manufacturer and supplier. However, without some kind of technical regulation that takes into account the interests of all participants in market relations, difficulties in the compatibility of products, processes, and the absence of liability guarantees are inevitable. Formal standardization agreements make life easier for buyers and sellers (of goods and services) around the world. Today, markets are becoming global and supply chains can cross the borders of many countries. International agreements and standards can help create a more favorable environment for international trade. The role of international standards as the technical foundation of the global market is emphasized in the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade. The agreement obliges governments to make maximum use of international standards in order to prevent the emergence of unwanted obstacles to the development of trade. The basis of the activities of the WTO organization is a kind of multilateral contract. It is the world's largest treaty regulating trade in almost all types of goods and services. By concluding it, the state receives guarantees that its export products will not be subjected to any discrimination in the markets of other participants in exchange for similar obligations. Currently, ~ 95% of all world trade is carried out according to WTO rules. The main task of the WTO - promoting unhindered international trade, while avoiding abuses and negative consequences. In many cases, the removal of barriers to trade. It also means that individual entrepreneurs, enterprises, departmental organizations must be well acquainted with the rules of international trade and be sure that these rules will not change abruptly and without warning. In other words, the rules must be perfectly clear, standard, and their application consistent. World experience, in particular the United States, shows that effective organizational and methodological methods that ensure the creation of competitive and high-quality products are those that follow the principles of standardization and certification. Improving the quality of products is considered the basis of its competitiveness and dynamic progressive development of production. 2. MAIN MILESTONES IN THE HISTORY OF STANDARDIZATION The development of economic relations between states at all times was invariably accompanied by the use of standardization methods. Thus, due to the need to build a large number of ships in Venice during the Renaissance, galleys were assembled from prefabricated parts and assemblies (the unification method was used). The beginning of international standardization can be considered the adoption in 1875 by representatives of 19 states of the International Metric Convention and the establishment of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. The first mention of standards in Russia was noted during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. On the instructions of the tsar in Novgorod, the casting of cannonballs was organized, and by a special decree of the tsar, the Novgorodians "were obliged to make the cannonballs round and smooth ... and what the gunners would indicate to them." To check the dimensions of the produced cores, special "standard" circle gauges were introduced. Important standardization measures begin to be carried out under Peter I. Thus, the construction of the fleet for the second Azov campaign was organized as follows. The best galley was delivered to the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow. There, at the sawmill, separate parts for the entire series of ships were made from it. The finished parts were transported to Voronezh to the shipyard, where ships were assembled from them. The application of the principles of standardization in the construction of the fleet was legalized by a number of official documents. On April 5, 1722, the "Regulations on the management of the Admiralty and the shipyard" were issued in St. Petersburg. The "Regulations" contained a number of instructions, similar in nature and purpose to the requirements of modern state standards. The multi-type of guns was finished: three main types were cast - guns, howitzers, mortars. The calibers of guns were also standardized. The need for standardization was also caused by the expanding foreign trade of the country. Agricultural raw materials were exported abroad - timber, cotton, hemp (hemp), as well as bread, meat, eggs, etc. But on world exchanges, high prices were paid only for conditioned goods that met established standards. Any non-standard goods were paid for on the stock exchanges at sharply reduced prices as defective. The tsarist government was forced to establish special requirements for exported goods. In 1713 in Arkhangelsk, and in 1718 in St. Petersburg, government grading commissions were set up to check the quality of exported flax. The official date for the start of state standardization in the USSR is September 15, 1925 - a standardization committee was created under the Council of Labor and Defense, which was entrusted with the overall management of standardization work in all departments, as well as the approval of standards mandatory for all sectors of the national economy. A category of all-union standards (OST) is being introduced, equated to state documents, mandatory for all enterprises and organizations of the country. The first group of all-Union standards was approved on May 7, 1926. These were standards for breeding varieties of wheat. In subsequent years, a number of other standards for agricultural products and raw materials (cotton, oil products, hides and skins, etc.) were approved. As of August 1, 1928, 300 all-Union standards in industry were approved. Development of standards in mechanical engineering. The first standards for the main dimensions, types and parts of machines and mechanisms, tools, fixtures, standards governing a unified system of tolerances and fits, calibers, etc., were approved in 1926-1929. They made it possible to carry out interchangeability in conditions of mass production, as well as specialization and cooperation in industry, and to apply the principles of in-line production. 3. MAIN GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF STANDARDIZATION Standardization - this is a scientific and technical activity aimed at achieving an optimal degree of streamlining in a certain area by establishing requirements for general and repeated application in relation to actual or potential problems. Standardization solves the tasks assigned to it by developing, implementing standards and other normative documents on standardization and conducting state supervision over them. Standardization is a normative way of management. Its impact on the object is carried out by establishing norms and rules, formalized in the form of regulatory documents that have legal force. The overall goal of standardization is to protect the interests of consumers and the state on the quality of products, processes and services. Standardization as an activity carried out in the following purposes. 1. Increasing the level of security: life and health of citizens; property; state and municipal property; in the field of ecology; facilities, taking into account the risk of natural and man-made emergencies. 2. Ensuring: competitiveness of products, works, services; scientific and technological progress; rational use of resources; compatibility and interchangeability of technical means; information compatibility; comparability of research results (tests) and measurements of technical and economic-statistical data; comparative analysis of product characteristics; government orders, introduction of innovations; confirmation of conformity of products (works, services); decisions of arbitration disputes; court decisions; fulfillment of deliveries. 3. Creation of classification and coding systems for technical, economic and social information; product cataloging; product quality assurance; search and data transmission; evidence base and conditions for fulfilling the requirements of technical regulations. 4. Assistance in carrying out work on unification. The main objectives of standardization are: - establishment of optimal requirements for product quality in the interests of the consumer and the republic, ensuring safety for the life, health or property of citizens and environmental protection; - ensuring the harmonization of the requirements of the organization's standards with the requirements of international, regional and national standards of leading foreign countries; - ensuring all types of compatibility and interchangeability of products; - unification based on the establishment and application of parametric and standard series, basic structures, block-modular components of products; - harmonization and coordination of indicators and characteristics of products, their elements, components, raw materials and materials; - reduction of material consumption and energy intensity of products, the use of waste-free and low-waste technologies; - establishment of metrological norms, rules, regulations and requirements; - regulatory and technical support for testing, certification, evaluation and quality control of products; - maintenance and development of the system of classification and coding of technical and economic information. 4. FUNCTIONS AND PRINCIPLES OF STANDARDIZATION ordering function - overcoming the unreasonable variety of objects (bloated product range, unnecessary variety of documents). It boils down to simplification and limitation. Everyday experience says: the more orderly an object is, the better it fits into the surrounding objective and natural environment with its requirements and laws. Security (social) function - ensuring the safety of consumers of products (services), manufacturers and the state, combining their efforts to protect nature from the technogenic impact of civilization. Resource saving function due to the limited material, energy, labor and natural resources and consists in establishing reasonable restrictions on the expenditure of resources in the RD. Communicative function provides communication and interaction of people, in particular specialists, through personal exchange or use of documentary means, hardware (computer, satellite, etc.) systems and messaging channels. This function aims to overcome barriers to trade and promote scientific, technical and economic cooperation. Civilizing function is aimed at improving the quality of products and services as a component of the quality of life. For example, the life expectancy of the country's population directly depends on the rigidity of the requirements of state standards for the content of harmful substances in food products, drinking water, and cigarettes. In this sense, the standards reflect the degree of social development of the country, that is, the level of civilization. Information function. Standardization provides material production, science and technology and other areas with regulatory documents, standards of measures, samples - product standards, product catalogs as carriers of valuable technical and managerial information. Reference in the agreement (contract) to the standard is the most convenient form of information about the quality of the goods as the main condition of the agreement (contract). Rulemaking and Enforcement Function manifests itself in the establishment of requirements for standardization objects in the form of a mandatory standard (regulation) and its general application as a result of giving the document legal force. Compliance with the mandatory requirements of ND is ensured, as a rule, by coercive measures (sanctions) of an economic, administrative and criminal nature. The main principles of standardization in the Russian Federation, which ensure the achievement of the goals and objectives of its development, are: in the voluntary application of standards; achievement in the development and adoption of standards of consensus of all interested parties; the use of international standards as the basis for the development of national standards; complexity of standardization for interrelated objects; the inadmissibility of establishing requirements in standards that contradict technical regulations; establishing requirements in standards that correspond to modern achievements in science, engineering and technology, taking into account the existing restrictions on their implementation; establishing requirements in standards that provide the possibility of objective control of their implementation; the clarity and clarity of the presentation of standards in order to ensure unambiguous understanding of their requirements; exclusion of duplication of the development of standards for objects of standardization that are identical in functionality; the inadmissibility of creating obstacles to the production and circulation of products, the performance of work and the provision of services to a greater extent than is the minimum necessary to fulfill the goals of standardization; availability of presentation of information on standards to all interested parties, except for cases stipulated by law. 5. MAIN PROVISIONS OF THE THEORY OF STANDARDIZATION Standardization theory - this is fundamental and applied scientific knowledge about the social practice of standardization. Fundamental theory of standardization studies, presents and develops the following theories: about its own subject of standardization; about their own scientific and practical method of social practice of standardization; about the main (regulatory) methodological principle of the social practice of standardization; about the main technical and economic regularity of the social practice of standardization; about the objective law of the social practice of standardization. Applied standardization theory studies, expounds and develops: the theory of the objective place, social role and control functions of standards as active elements of modern productive forces and regulators of the original regulatory and technical side (boundary) of production and economic relations between commodity developers and commodity producers, on the one hand, and commodity consumers ( or buyers) - on the other hand; the theory of socially necessary objects of standardization as the results of a person's creative intellectual and technical labor, subject to socialization in the form of developing new or updating existing standards; the theory of the immediate, own goal of standardization as the creation, systematic updating and normative application of an optimal fund of standards in terms of composition, structure and level of requirements; the theory of applied methodological principles of standardization in a socially oriented way of optimal functioning of the economy (principles of consistency, complexity, regularity, optimality, a combination of mandatory and voluntary requirements, flexibility and dynamism); the theory of the socially necessary optimal fund of standards as the main regulator of the original regulatory and technical side (facet) of production and economic relations in a socially oriented way of optimal functioning of the economy. The own scientific and practical method of standardization activities includes the following more particular methods used at the appropriate stages and stages of the general standardization algorithm: classifying and coding the initial sets of standardization objects according to their intended (or functional) purpose; drafting standards and sending them for feedback, conclusion and approval to competent legal entities and individuals; reaching a consensus of all interested parties on the composition and level of requirements for a specific object of standardization included in the draft standard before its official adoption (approval). The main methodological principle of standardization is the timeliness of developing new and updating existing standards, which should be implemented in relation to new positive results of creative work of both researchers and developers. In cases of non-compliance with the main (regulatory) methodological principle of standardization, standardization activities turn out to be either premature or delayed. Therefore, the question of the correct timing of the start of the development of a new standard or the updating of an existing standard is of decisive importance for the effectiveness of all this streamlining, technical normative and technical normative activity. 6. THE OBJECT OF STANDARDIZATION AND THE OBJECTIVE LAW OF STANDARDIZATION The object of standardization according to GOST R 1.0-2002 is a product, work, process and services that are subject to or have undergone standardization. Production includes: raw materials and natural fuels; materials and products; finished goods; certain aspects of homogeneous product groups (terms, designations; parameters and dimensions; technical requirements; control methods; acceptance rules; rules for labeling, packaging, transportation and storage). Services: - material; - intangible. Separate aspects of homogeneous groups of services: terms; assessment methods; classification; security requirements. Processes: occurring at individual stages of the product life cycle; related to non-material production (statistical, banking, publishing activities); managerial; measuring; accounting and processing of information; protective action (people, nature). Usually, all standardization work includes four stages: - selection of objects of standardization; - modeling of the object of standardization; - model optimization; - model standardization. Suppose an organization uses a certain set of types of organizational and administrative documents - orders, memorandums, etc. In this case, repeating objects (separate types of documents) become the object of standardization. Of course, not the objects themselves as material objects are subjected to the standardization process, but information about them, reflecting their essential aspects (features, properties), i.e., an abstract model of a real object. For example, for an organizational and administrative document, such features are: the composition of the details (name of the organization, name of the document); registration of details; form, content, location; requirements for the document and its accounting, use, storage. In different organizations, the options for executing a document may be different depending on the prevailing practice. In particular, a different composition of details, their different design, the use of different forms, etc. are possible. For reproduction and ensuring common understanding, it is necessary to unify the document by selecting the best version of the composition of the details, the required level of design, the optimal form format. The optimal solution is achieved by general scientific methods and standardization methods (simplification, typification, etc.). As a result of the transformation, an optimal model of the standardized object is obtained. At the final stage, standardization itself is carried out - the development of a regulatory document based on a unified model. The objective law of standardization is the socio-economic necessity of timely socialization of new positive results of creative intellectual and technical work of researchers and developers in the form of regulatory and technical information (in the form of requirements included in the adopted new or updated standards) about the integral quality of new objects of the second nature, which have a clear perspective of subsequent repeated application in any area of social practice. 7. METHODOLOGY FOR THE FORMATION OF TERMINO SYSTEMS ACCORDING TO ISO 9000:2000 In terminological work, connections between concepts are based on hierarchical relationships between features of species in such a way that the most economical description of a concept is formed by naming its species and describing features that distinguish it from higher or subordinate concepts. The methodology for the formation of term systems is provided by the international standard ISO 9000:2000. There are three main types of relationships: generic, partitive and associative. 1. Generic relationship. Subordinate concepts within the hierarchy inherit the features of the superordinate concept and contain descriptions of those features that distinguish them from superordinate (superior) and coordinate (subordinate) concepts, for example, the relationship of spring, summer, autumn and winter with the seasons. Generic relationships are depicted graphically as a fan or tree without arrows. Graphical representation of the generic relationship 2. Partitive connection.
Subordinate concepts within the same hierarchical system are part of the superordinate concept, for example, spring, summer, autumn and winter can be defined as parts of the year. Partitive relations are depicted as a rake. Single parts are depicted with one line, and multiple parts with two.  Graphical representation of a partitive connection 3. Associative connection. Associative links are not as economical as generic and partitive links, but they help determine the nature of the relationship between two concepts within a system of concepts, for example, cause and effect, action and place, action and result, tool and function, material and product. Associative links are represented by a single line with arrows at each end.  Graphical representation of an association Based on this methodological approach, the concepts and terms of standardization are formed and classified. 8. THE SYSTEM OF PREFERRED NUMBERS AS A BASIS FOR ENSURING COMPATIBILITY IN MODERN STANDARDIZATION Compatibility - this is the property of objects to take their place in a complex finished product and perform the required functions during the joint or sequential operation of these objects and a complex product under specified operating conditions. The mathematical basis for ensuring compatibility in modern standardization is the system of preferred numbers. Preferred numbers are numbers that are recommended to be chosen as preferable over all others when assigning parameter values for newly created products (capacity, load capacity, dimensions, speeds, pressures, temperatures, electric current voltages, numbers of work cycles and other characteristics of designed machines and devices) . Preferred numbers are obtained based on a geometric progression, the i-th term of which is ±10. The denominator of the progression is expressed as 0= 10, where R= 5, 10, 20, 40, 80 and 160, and i takes integer values between 0 and R. The value of R determines the number of terms in the progression in one decimal interval. The preferred numbers of one row can be either only positive or only negative. If a strictly reasonable set of preferred numbers is followed, then the parameters and dimensions of an individual product or group of products will be best compatible with all relevant types of products. Failure to comply with this condition causes unnecessary expenditure of resources, incomplete use of equipment, a decrease in labor productivity, and an increase in the cost of production. Rows of preferred numbers must meet the following requirements: - represent a rational system of gradations that meets the needs of production and operation; - be infinite in the directions of decreasing and increasing numbers; - include all consecutive tenfold or fractional values of each number in the series; - be simple and easy to remember. Convenient and meeting these requirements are numbers that are geometric series, such as a geometric progression. The main standard in this area is GOST 8032 "Preferred numbers and series of preferred numbers". On the basis of this standard, GOST 6636 "Normal linear dimensions" was approved, which establishes a series of numbers for choosing linear dimensions. The use of a system of preferred numbers allows not only to unify the parameters of products of a certain type, but also to link products of various types by parameters - parts, products, vehicles and technological equipment. Deviations from the preferred numbers and their series are allowed in the following cases: - rounding to the preferred number is beyond the margin of error; - the values of the parameters of technical objects follow a pattern that is different from a geometric progression. Derived series are used when none of the main series meets the requirements and when gradations of numerical characteristics are established, depending on the parameters and sizes formed on the basis of the main series. The introduction of a single order in the transition from one numerical value of the parameters to another in all industries reduces the number of standard sizes, leads to a more economical cutting of raw materials, allows you to coordinate and link different types of products, materials, semi-finished products, vehicles, production equipment (in terms of power , dimensions, etc.). 9. METHODS FOR OBJECT IDENTIFICATION Standardization provides a set of methods necessary to establish the optimal solution to repetitive tasks and establish it as norms and rules. Each object, phenomenon, property has a certain set of features that distinguish it from many others. The difference of one object from another is carried out on the basis of certain features inherent in these objects. In various situations, it becomes necessary to identify a specific object or a group of similar objects. Among the most frequently used are the following methods for identifying objects: unique names; digital numbers; symbols; classification; reference; descriptive; descriptive reference. Unique Name Method is the oldest. The names of planets, rivers, mountains are, as a rule, unique and are used in combination "object - name", for example: the Volga river, the Volga restaurant, the Volga car, etc. Digital number method, assigned to objects are one of the most widely used. A sequence number is assigned to an object based on a set order. This procedure is established by the body that carries out the numbering (train, group, house numbers, etc.). Conventional notation method widely used in the identification of products and documents. Three ways of constructing symbols are usually used: mnemonic, with the help of generally accepted signs, makes it easier for a person to understand and remember the necessary information about a product or document; classification is used in cases where information is processed in computer systems. On its basis, for example, a unified classification system for designating products and design documents was built; mnemoclassification includes the advantages of both of the above methods, since it contributes to better memorization and provides the possibility of computer processing. classification method is used in many areas of activity, because it provides a systematization of objects. It is especially effective in data processing in control systems, when it is necessary, for example, to collect information about cars, activities, etc. The code assigned to the classification group ensures its complete identification within a particular classifier. Reference Method used to identify objects in cases where descriptions of specific characteristics (properties, indicators, distinguishing features) are presented in regulatory or technical documents, most often to identify specific products when ordering them, for example: Hydrochloric acid according to GOST 3118-77. Descriptive Method identification is used, as a rule, in cases where it is necessary to identify a specific object by describing its characteristics (properties, parameters, indicators). One of the main advantages of the descriptive identification method is the possibility of carrying out a comparative analysis of homogeneous (related) objects by comparing the characteristics included in their identification. Descriptive-reference method Identification, unlike descriptive, uses only a part of the main characteristics of the object in combination with a link to the document, where all its characteristics are placed. This method is most widely used when creating databanks about various objects, as well as about various information publications, such as catalogs, indexes, cadastres, etc. It allows you to significantly reduce the amount of information needed to identify objects, which is essential for saving computer memory and reduction of volumes of publications. 10. SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF STANDARDIZATION Standardization, both as a science and as a type of activity, is based on certain starting points - principles that determine the vector of its development and the meaning of existence. The principles of standardization reflect the basic laws of the standards development process, justify its necessity in the management of business, the national economy, relations in society, determine the conditions for effective implementation and development trends. There are seven major principles of standardization. 1. Balance of interests of the parties developing, manufacturing, providing and consuming products (services). Participants in standardization work, based on the capabilities of the product manufacturer and service provider, on the one hand, and the requirements of the consumer, on the other hand, must find a consensus, which is understood as a general agreement, i.e. the absence of objections on significant issues from the majority of interested parties, the desire to take into account opinion of all parties and to bring together dissenting points of view. 2. Consistency and complexity of standardization. Consistency is understood as the consideration of each object as part of a more complex system. For example, a tin can as a consumer container is partly included in a shipping container - a box, the latter is placed in a container, and the container is placed in a vehicle. Complexity implies the compatibility of all elements of a complex system. 3. Relevance and advanced development of the standard. Undoubtedly, standards model real-life patterns. However, scientific and technological progress makes changes in technology, management processes. Therefore, standards must adapt to the ongoing changes. Relevance is ensured by periodic verification of standards, amendments to them, cancellation of obsolete documents. In order for the newly created standard to be less subject to obsolescence, it must outpace the development of society. Advanced development is ensured by introducing into the standard advanced requirements for the range of products, quality indicators, control methods, etc. Advanced development is also ensured by taking into account international and regional standards, progressive national standards of other countries at the stage of development of ND. 4. The effectiveness of standardization. The use of ND should have an economic or social effect. The direct economic effect is provided by standards that lead to saving resources, increasing reliability, technical and information compatibility. Standards aimed at ensuring the safety of life and health of people and the environment provide a social effect. 5. Prioritize the development of standards that contribute to ensuring the safety, compatibility and interchangeability of products (services). This goal is achieved by ensuring compliance with the requirements of standards, legislative norms and is implemented through regulation and compliance with the mandatory requirements of state standards. An important requirement for a standard is its suitability for conformity assessment purposes. 6. The principle of harmonization. This principle provides for the development of harmonized standards. Ensuring the identity of documents related to the same object, but adopted both by standardization organizations in our country and by international (regional) organizations, allows us to develop standards that do not create obstacles in international trade. 7. Clarity of the wording of the provisions of the standard. The possibility of an ambiguous interpretation of the norm indicates a serious defect in the RD. 11. SYSTEMATIZATION, SELECTION, SIMPLIFICATION, TYPING AND OPTIMIZATION Ordering as a generic method consists of the following methods. Systematization objects of standardization consists in scientifically substantiated sequential classification and ranking of a set of specific objects of standardization. An example of the result of work on the systematization of products is the All-Russian Classifier of Industrial and Agricultural Products, which systematizes all marketable products in the form of various classification groups and specific product names. Selection objects of standardization - an activity consisting in the selection of such specific objects that are recognized as appropriate for further production and use in social production. Simplification (restriction) is an activity that consists in the selection and rational limitation of the range of objects allowed for use in a given industry, at a given enterprise or in any object, to a number sufficient to meet the current needs. At the same time, only those objects that are considered necessary are left; no further improvements are made to them. Historically, this method has developed one of the first and, in comparison with other methods, is the simplest. Restriction can be carried out at almost all levels. In particular, national and international standards may be limited to enterprise standards. In addition, on the basis of standards, each enterprise can develop restrictive lists that establish the types, types and range of components, assemblies and materials permitted for use in the development, manufacture or modernization of any products, as well as restrictions on the use of certain scientific and technical documents. . Finally, restrictions can be imposed on the types of technological processes used, elements of various designs, ratings of electrical, physical and other parameters of products, etc. Selection and simplification processes are carried out in parallel. They are preceded by the classification and ranking of objects and a special analysis of the prospects and comparison of objects with future needs. Typing - this is an activity that consists in rationally reducing the types of objects by establishing some typical types taken as a basis (base) when creating other objects that are similar or close in functionality. Therefore, this method is also called the method of "basic structures". When typing, new types of products are developed, promising, taking into account the latest achievements of science, technology and industrial development. Typing as a method of standardization ensures the persistence of individual objects from a possible set, although each specific object may undergo some changes or refinements to perform additional functions. Typification has become widespread in industry for the standardization of standard general-purpose products and standard technological processes for manufacturing products, as well as methods for testing them. Optimization standardization objects is to find the optimal main parameters (destination parameters), as well as the values of all other indicators of quality and efficiency. The goal of optimization is to achieve the optimal degree of ordering and the highest possible efficiency according to the selected criterion. 12. ALL-RUSSIAN CLASSIFIER OF INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS The All-Russian Classifier of Industrial and Agricultural Products is a systematized set of codes and names of products that are the subject of delivery. The All-Russian classifier of industrial and agricultural products consists of a classification and assortment parts. The classification part is a set of codes and names of classification groups (class - subclass - group - subgroup - species), systematizing products according to certain characteristics. Assortment part - a set of codes and names that identify specific types, brands, etc. Consider an example of a code designation in the All-Russian classifier of industrial and agricultural products of class 54: - 54 (class) - products of the pulp and paper industry; - 54 6 (subclass) - school notebooks, wallpaper and white paper products; - 54 6 3 (group) - white goods; - 54 6 3 1 (subgroup) - school notebooks and diaries; - 54 6 3 1 4 (view) - notebooks for writing with a pencil; - 54 6 3 14 0001 (variety) - notebooks for writing with a pencil, edged binding, solid paper block made of typographic coated paper, volume 48 sheets, size 144 x 203 mm. In the classification part (class - type), the products are ranked in the order of dividing the set of objects (pulp and paper industry products) according to common characteristics (purpose, etc.), in the assortment part - according to particular characteristics (design, etc.). All-Russian classifiers of technical, economic and social information are regulatory documents that distribute technical and economic information in accordance with its classification (classes, groups, types, and others) and are mandatory for use when creating state information systems and information resources and interdepartmental information exchange. The structure of the code is, as a rule, a graphic representation of the sequence of the location of the code characters and the names of the division levels corresponding to these characters. For example, the code structure for the All-Russian Product Classifier OK 005-93 is presented as follows:  13. PARAMETRIC STANDARDIZATION, UNIFICATION AND AGGREGATION OF PRODUCTS Product Parameter is a quantitative characteristic of its properties. Important parameters are the characteristics that determine the purpose of the product and the conditions for its use: dimensional parameters; weight parameters; parameters characterizing the performance of machines and devices; energy parameters. The set of set parameter values is called the parametric series. A variation of the parametric series is the size range. Each size of a product (or material) of the same type is called a standard size. The process of standardization of parametric series (parametric standardization) consists in the selection and justification of an appropriate nomenclature and numerical value of the parameters. Product unification. Activities to rationally reduce the number of types of parts, units of the same functional purpose is called the unification of products. The main directions of unification are: - development of parametric and standard-size series of products, machines, equipment, instruments, assemblies and parts; - development of standard products in order to create unified groups of homogeneous products; - development of unified technological processes, including technological processes for specialized production of products of intersectoral application; - restriction by a reasonable minimum of the range of products and materials allowed for use. The results of work on unification are drawn up in the form of albums of typical (unified) designs of parts, assemblies, assembly units; type standards. There are intersectoral (unification of products and their elements of the same or similar purpose, manufactured by two or more industries), industry and factory (unification of products manufactured by one industry or one enterprise). They also distinguish intraspecific (families of the same type of products) and interspecific or interproject (assemblies, assemblies, parts of different types of products). The degree of unification is characterized by the level of unification of products - the saturation of products with unified, including standardized, parts, assemblies and assembly units. Aggregation - this is a method of creating machines, instruments and equipment from separate standard unified units that are reused in the creation of various products based on geometric and functional interchangeability. Aggregation is very widely used in mechanical engineering, radio electronics. The development of mechanical engineering is characterized by the complication and frequent changes in the design of machines. For the design and manufacture of a large number of various machines, it was necessary, first of all, to divide the machine design into independent assembly units (assemblies) so that each of them performed a specific function in the machine, which made it possible to specialize the manufacture of assemblies as independent products, the operation of which can be checked independently of the whole system. cars. The division of products into structurally complete units was the first prerequisite for the development of the aggregation method. Subsequently, the analysis of machine designs showed that many units, assemblies and parts, different in design, perform the same functions in various machines. The generalization of particular design solutions by developing unified units, assemblies and parts has significantly expanded the capabilities of this method. 14. COMPREHENSIVE AND ADVANCED STANDARDIZATION. INTEGRAL PRODUCT COVERAGE FACTOR RџSЂRё comprehensive standardization a purposeful and systematic establishment and application of a system of interrelated requirements is carried out both to the object of complex standardization as a whole and to its main elements in order to optimally solve a specific problem. With regard to products, this is the establishment and application of interrelated requirements for the quality of finished products necessary for their manufacture, raw materials, materials and components, as well as conditions for storage and consumption (operation). Comprehensive standardization ensures the interconnection and interdependence of related industries for the joint production of a finished product that meets the requirements of state standards. The main criteria for selecting objects of complex standardization are the technical and economic feasibility of standardization and the level of technical excellence of products. The principles of complex standardization are based on identifying the relationship between the quality indicators of the components of the product and objects of labor. It is characterized by three main methodological principles: consistency (establishment of interrelated requirements in order to ensure the highest level of quality); optimality (determination of the optimal nomenclature of objects of complex standardization, composition and quantitative values of their quality indicators); program planning (development of special programs for complex standardization of objects, their elements included in plans for state, sectoral and republican standardization). Indicator of the degree of complex standardization - cumulative coverage ratio products by standardization Kint, obtained by multiplying partial coefficients characterizing the level of standardization of raw materials, semi-finished products, parts and parts of structures, components, equipment, test methods, finished products, etc.: Kint = K1? K2? K3? ... ? Kn, where Kp - partial coefficients of standardization of each structural element, component included in the product. The partial coefficient K is the ratio of the number of developed regulatory and technical documents for standardized structural elements (Kst) to the total number of regulatory and technical documents required for the production of this product (Ktotal), i.e. K = (Kst: Ktot) x 100. Partial standardization coefficients are divided into groups according to their relation to the tools of labor (equipment, equipment, tools, etc.), to the objects of labor (raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, etc.). When making the final decision, the need to develop and implement integrated standardization programs for the regulatory and technical support of previously planned targeted integrated programs is taken into account. Advanced standardization is to establish standards and requirements for standardization objects that are higher than the level already achieved in practice, which, according to forecasts, will be optimal in the future. To ensure that standards do not hamper technical progress, they must establish long-term quality indicators indicating the timing of their provision with industrial production. Leading standards should standardize promising types of products, the mass production of which has not yet begun or is at an early stage. Advanced standardization includes the use of progressive international standards and standards of individual foreign countries in the standards of industries (standards of organizations) before they are adopted in our country as state ones. 15. STANDARDIZATION METHODS Standardization provides a set of methods necessary to establish the optimal solution to repetitive tasks and establish it as norms and rules. Each object, phenomenon, property has a certain set of features that distinguish it from many others. The difference of one object from another is carried out on the basis of certain features inherent in these objects. The following methods of identifying objects are distinguished: 1) unique names; 2) digital numbers; 3) symbols; 4) classification; 5) reference; 6) descriptive; 7) descriptive-reference. Method of unique names. The names of planets, rivers, mountains are, as a rule, unique and are used in combination "object - name", for example: the Volga River, the Volga restaurant, etc. The method of digital numbers assigned to objects. A serial number is assigned to an object based on a set order. This procedure is established by the body that carries out the numbering (train, group, house numbers, etc.). The advantage of this method is that it provides a simple and short identification of the object, and the disadvantage is that it is not informative. Conventional notation method used to identify products and documents. Three methods of constructing symbols are used: mnemonic, with the help of generally accepted signs, makes it easier for a person to understand and remember the necessary information about a product or document; classification is used in cases where information is processed in computer systems. On its basis, for example, a unified classification system for designating products and design documents was built; mnemoclassification includes the advantages of both of the above methods, since it contributes to better memorization and provides the possibility of computer processing. classification method provides systematization of objects. Effective in data processing in control systems. The code assigned to a classification group ensures its complete identification within a particular classifier. Reference Method used when descriptions of specific characteristics are presented in regulatory or technical documents, most often to determine specific products when ordering, for example: Hydrochloric acid according to GOST 3118-77. Descriptive Method used when it is necessary to identify a specific object by describing its characteristics. Descriptive-reference method identification uses only a part of the main characteristics of the object in combination with a link to the document, where all of its characteristics are placed. It is widely used when creating data banks about various objects, as well as about various information publications, such as catalogs, indexes, cadastres, etc. Standardization - activity aimed at achieving an optimal degree of streamlining of a particular area by establishing provisions for general and reusable use in relation to actual or potential problems (ISO/IEC 2). The direct result of standardization is, first of all, a normative document. The use of ND is a way of ordering in a certain area, that is, it is a means of standardization. 16. MEANS OF STANDARDIZATION The means of standardization used on the territory of the Russian Federation include: national standards; interstate standards put into effect in the Russian Federation; standardization rules, norms and recommendations in the field of standardization; all-Russian classifiers of technical, economic and social information; organization standards. National Standards develop, approve, update and cancel in accordance with GOST R 1.2-2004. The national standard is applied voluntarily, after which all its requirements become mandatory. General rules for the construction, presentation, design and designation of national standards, as well as requirements for their content - according to GOST R 1.5. The national standard in the Russian Federation is the State Standard of the Russian Federation (GOST R) - a standard adopted by the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology of the Russian Federation. In the field of construction, GOST R is accepted by the Gosstroy of Russia. The objects of state standards include: organizational, methodological and general technical objects of intersectoral application; products, works and services of cross-industry significance. When standardizing organizational, methodological and general technical objects, provisions are established that ensure technical unity in the development, production, operation of products and the provision of services, for example: organization of work on standardization, certification; development and production of products for production; rules for drawing up technical, managerial, information and bibliographic documentation; general rules for product quality assurance; standard series and standard designs; classification and coding of technical and economic information; metrological and other general technical rules and norms. The application of the national standard for products, works and services is confirmed by the mark of compliance with the national standard according to GOST R 1.9. Rules (PR) - a document that establishes organizational, technical and (or) general technical provisions, procedures and methods for performing work that are mandatory for use. Recommendations (P) - a document containing voluntary organizational and technical and (or) general technical provisions, procedures and methods for performing work. Normal value - a provision that establishes quantitative or qualitative criteria to be satisfied. Regulations - a document containing binding legal norms and adopted by an authority. Technical Regulations - a regulation containing technical requirements, either directly, or by reference to standards, specifications or codes of practice, or by incorporating the contents of these documents. Code of Practice A document recommending rules of thumb or procedures for the design, manufacture, installation, maintenance or operation of equipment, structures or products. All-Russian classifier of technical, economic and social information (OKTESI) - an official document, which is a systematized set of names and codes of classification groups and (or) objects of classification in the field of technical, economic and social information. OKTESI - documents in the field of standardization, distributing technical, economic and social information in accordance with its classification characteristics into classification groups (classes, groups, types) and which are mandatory for use in the creation of state information systems and information resources and in the interdepartmental exchange of information. 17. STANDARDS OF ORGANIZATIONS (STO) The Federal Law "On Technical Regulation" establishes a new category of documents in the field of standardization - "standards of organizations". Organizations can independently establish the procedure for developing their standards, make a documented decision (by preparing and approving an appropriate organizational and administrative document) on the recognition and application of previously developed and currently valid enterprise standards or standards of a public association as standards of this organization. At the same time, the issue of the advisability of a gradual, phased or one-time re-issuance of the enterprise (association) standards and / or changing their designation to reflect the fact that these standards are organization standards can be resolved. The procedure for applying the standards of organizations "equally and equally regardless of the country and / or place of origin of products, the implementation of production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, performance of work and provision of services, types or features of transactions and / or persons who are manufacturers, performers, sellers, purchasers". The goals of developing standards for organizations are: improvement of production; ensuring the quality of products, performance of work and provision of services; dissemination and use of the results of research (tests), measurements and developments obtained in various fields of knowledge. At the same time, the standards of organizations should serve the general goals of standardization, which include: increasing the level of safety of life or health of citizens, property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property, environmental safety, safety of life or health of animals and plants; assistance in compliance with the requirements of technical regulations; increasing the level of safety of facilities, taking into account the risk of natural and man-made emergencies; ensuring scientific and technological progress; increasing the competitiveness of products, works and services; rational use of resources; technical and information compatibility; comparability of the results of research (tests) and measurements, technical and economic-statistical data; product interchangeability. The advantage of standardization at the organization level (over national standardization) is the ability to establish its own clear rules for the development and application of its own standards, taking into account the specifics of the structure of the organization and / or its field of activity. The procedure for developing, approving, recording, changing and canceling the standards of organizations is established by them independently, taking into account GOST R 1.4-2004. The organization's draft standard may be submitted by the developer to the technical committee for standardization, which organizes the examination of this project. Based on the results of the examination of this project, the technical committee for standardization prepares a conclusion, which is sent to the developer of the draft standard. The standards of organizations are applied equally and equally regardless of the country and (or) place of origin of products, the implementation of production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, performance of work and provision of services, types or features of transactions and (or) persons. 18. CODING PRODUCT INFORMATION The idea of bar coding originated in the 30s. at Harvard Business School (USA). The first practical use of the system was in the United States for the identification of railway cars. Abroad, the presence of a bar code on the packaging of goods has become a mandatory requirement, without which trade organizations may refuse goods. A barcode consists of alternating dark (bars) and light (spaces) stripes of varying widths. Band sizes are standardized. Barcodes are designed to be read by special optical scanners. Scanners decode the strokes into a digital code and enter product information into a computer. The most commonly used two EAN codes (European Article Numbering): 13-bit and 8-bit. They include codes: country (50 - Great Britain, 400-440 Germany, 460-469 Russia), manufacturer of goods. The manufacturer's code is compiled in each country by the appropriate national authority (includes 5 digits). The product code is compiled directly by the manufacturer (5 digits). The decoding of the code is not universal and may reflect some of the characteristics (features) of the product. The check number is designed to check the correct reading of the code by the scanner. The EAN-8 code is intended for small packages where the longer EAN-13 code is difficult to fit. The digital series is not read by the scanner and is intended for the buyer. A full barcode, on the other hand, allows you to have clear details of the origin of the goods and be able to make claims for quality, safety and other parameters. In Russia, the Foreign Economic Association for Problems of Automatic Identification (UNISCAN) deals with bar coding issues.  19. RULES, NORMS AND RECOMMENDATIONS IN THE FIELD OF STANDARDIZATION The legal basis for standardization in Russia is provided by the Law of the Russian Federation of June 10, 1993 No. 5154-1 "On Standardization". This Law establishes the legal framework for standardization in the Russian Federation, which is mandatory for all government authorities, as well as enterprises and entrepreneurs, public associations, and determines measures of state protection of the interests of consumers and the state through the development and application of regulatory documents on standardization. The Law interprets the concept of standardization as an activity aimed at defining norms, rules, requirements, characteristics that must ensure the safety of products, works and services, their technical and information compatibility, interchangeability, quality of products (services) in accordance with the achievements of scientific and technological progress. Norms and requirements may also apply to the safety of economic facilities in emergency situations (for example, natural and man-made disasters), to the country's defense capability and mobilization readiness. When standardizing organizational, methodological and general technical objects, rules and regulations are established that ensure technical unity in the development, production, operation of products and the provision of services, for example: organization of work on standardization, certification; development and production of products for production; rules for drawing up technical, managerial, information and bibliographic documentation; general rules for product quality assurance; standard-dimensional rows and standard designs; classification and coding of technical and economic information; metrological and other general technical rules and norms. Rules - a document establishing organizational, technical and (or) general technical provisions, procedures and methods of work performance that are mandatory for application. Recommendations - a document containing voluntary organizational and technical and (or) general technical provisions, procedures and methods for performing work. Normal value - a provision that establishes quantitative or qualitative criteria to be satisfied. Regulations - a document containing binding legal norms and adopted by an authority. Technical Regulations - a regulation containing technical requirements, either directly, or by reference to standards, specifications or codes of practice, or by incorporating the contents of these documents. Code of Practice A document recommending rules of thumb or procedures for the design, manufacture, installation, maintenance or operation of equipment, structures or products. This document may be a standard, part of a standard, or a standalone document. All-Russian classifier of technical, economic and social information - an official document, which is a systematized set of names and codes of classification groups and (or) objects of classification in the field of technical, economic and social information. 20. TECHNICAL REGULATIONS Technical Regulations is a document adopted by an international treaty of the Russian Federation, ratified in the manner prescribed by the legislation of the Russian Federation, or a federal law, or a decree of the President of the Russian Federation, or a decree of the Government of the Russian Federation and establishes mandatory requirements for application and implementation of requirements for objects of technical regulation (products, as well as buildings, buildings and structures, processes of production, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal). A technical regulation is a document that sets out an exhaustive list of requirements imposed by the state on a particular type of activity. Other requirements may be introduced only by amendments and additions to this regulation. The unit of such rationing, its basic module, is no longer a separate document (which is convenient for rationing instances), but a regulation for the type of activity, a kind of exhaustive set of rules and regulations (which is convenient for enterprises and necessary for effective control). The Government of the Russian Federation has the right to issue a resolution on technical regulations, which is temporary and valid until the entry into force of the relevant federal law. At the same time, the procedure for adopting such a resolution must fully comply with the requirements of the Law "On Technical Regulation". The Russian Federation has general technical regulations and special technical regulations. The requirements of the general technical regulation are mandatory for application and compliance with any type of product, production process, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal. The requirements of a special technical regulation take into account the technological and other features of certain types of products, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal. The regulations should include only those requirements that ensure the achievement of the following goals: safety of life or health of citizens; security of property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property; environmental protection; protection of life or health of animals and plants; prevention of actions that mislead consumers. Ensuring the security of property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property, as a rule, is understood as requirements that make it possible to avoid (of course, with a certain probability) the threat of its destruction. Environmental protection is understood as ensuring the protection of the environment from harmful effects associated with human activities. This should take into account the harm caused both to people living near a dangerous object, and to the animal and plant world, property, buildings and structures. The protection of animal life includes, in addition to preventing direct threats to specific animal species, also the issues of preventing the spread of infectious diseases and epizootics. As regards the protection of "plant life and health," we are talking about ensuring the prevention of plant diseases and the protection of territories from the spread of plant diseases. Prevention of actions that mislead consumers is provided with reliable information about the products, works and services sold, i.e. by informing, marking, labeling and other similar measures and actions. Technical regulations should not contain requirements for the quality and consumer properties of products, since such requirements should be regulated by market relations, and not by administrative measures. These include, for example, appearance characteristics of products, taste characteristics, smell, quality of finish, characteristics compatible with other products, etc. 21. TYPES OF STANDARDS Depending on the object and aspect of standardization, as well as the content of the established requirements, the following types of standards are developed: - product standards; - standards for the processes (works) of production, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal of products; - service standards; - fundamental standards (organizational-methodical and general technical); - standards for terms and definitions; - standards for control methods (tests, measurements, analysis). Product standards establish for groups of homogeneous products or for specific products the requirements and methods for their control in terms of safety, basic consumer properties, as well as requirements for the conditions and rules for operation, transportation, storage, use and disposal. For products (services) develop the following main types of standards; general specification standard; specification standard. In the first case, the standard contains general requirements for groups of homogeneous products, in the second - for specific products. These standards generally include the following sections: classification, basic parameters and (or) dimensions; general technical requirements; acceptance rules; marking, packing, transportation, storage. For groups of homogeneous products, narrow-purpose standards can be developed: standards for technical requirements; acceptance rules standards; standards for labeling, packaging, transportation and storage rules. Process and Work Standards establish the basic requirements for the organization of production and turnover of products on the market, for methods (methods, techniques, regimes, norms) for performing various types of work, as well as methods for monitoring these requirements in the technological processes of development, manufacture, storage, transportation, operation, repair and disposal products. At the present stage, standards for management processes within the framework of systems for ensuring the quality of products (services) are of great importance - documentation management, product procurement, training, etc. Service standards establish requirements and methods for their control for groups of homogeneous services or for a specific service in terms of the composition, content and form of assistance activities, benefiting the consumer of the service, as well as requirements for factors that have a significant impact on the quality of the service. Fundamental Standards establish general organizational and methodological provisions for a certain area of activity, as well as general technical requirements (norms and rules) that ensure mutual understanding, compatibility and interchangeability; technical unity and interconnection of various fields of science, technology and production in the processes of creation and use of products; environmental protection; safety of people's health and property and other general technical requirements that ensure the interests of the national economy and security. Standards for terms and definitions establish the name and content of the concepts used in standardization and related activities. Standards for methods of control, testing, measurement and analysis establish requirements for the equipment used, conditions and procedures for the implementation of all operations, processing and presentation of the results, qualifications of personnel. The control methods specified in the standards must be objective, accurate and provide reproducible results. The fulfillment of these conditions largely depends on the presence in the standard of information about the measurement error. 22. TECHNICAL CONDITIONS. DESIGNATION OF TECHNICAL CONDITIONS Manufacturers' technical specifications for the supplied products are used as regulatory documents if they are referenced in agreements (contracts). Specifications are developed: for one specific product, material, substance, etc.; for several specific products, materials, substances, etc. This is a normative document developed by enterprises and organizations in the case when it is not practical to create standards. Specifications are very common regulatory documents (the fund of specifications is about 600). Unlike standards, they are developed in a shorter time, which allows you to quickly organize the release of new products. The object of the technical conditions is the product, in particular its varieties - specific brands, models of goods. Typical objects of technical conditions among goods are: products produced in small batches, products of a changing assortment, products mastered by the industry, products manufactured on the basis of new recipes and (or) technologies. specifications - documents in which a specific manufacturer voluntarily establishes requirements for the quality and safety of specific products, necessary and sufficient for its identification, quality control and safety during manufacture, storage and transportation. Specifications establish a complete set of requirements for manufactured specific products (brands, types, etc.) and include sections such as scope, quality and safety requirements or technical requirements, marking, packaging, manufacturer's warranties, etc. Specifications must contain an introductory part and sections in the following order: technical requirements; safety requirements; environmental protection requirements; acceptance rules; control methods; transportation and storage; operating instructions; manufacturer's warranty. The requirements established by the technical specifications should not contradict the mandatory requirements of state standards that apply to these products. Specifications are subject to approval by the acceptance committee, if the decision to put products into production is made by the acceptance committee. The signing of the act of acceptance of a prototype (pilot batch) of products by members of the acceptance committee means the approval of technical specifications. If the decision to put products into production is made without an acceptance committee, the technical specifications are sent for approval to the customer (consumer). Designation of technical conditions can be done in two ways. According to one of them, the designation is formed: from the code "TU"; product group code according to the product classifier (OKP); code of the enterprise - the developer of the technical specification according to the classifier of enterprises and organizations (OKPO); the last two digits of the year the document was approved. Specifications are subject to accounting registration at the Center for Standardization and Metrology (CSM) at the location of the enterprise. A copy of the technical specification is submitted for registration and a catalog sheet as an attachment to it. The catalog sheet provides detailed information about the manufacturer and released specific products in the form of text and in coded form. The catalog sheets act as modules, with the help of which catalogs of manufactured products are formed and a cataloging system is built in the country. The enterprise-developer is responsible for the correct filling of the catalog sheet. 23. APPLICATION OF DOCUMENTS IN THE FIELD OF STANDARDIZATION Documents in the field of standardization are used by federal executive authorities, business entities at the stages: - development, preparation of products for production, their manufacture, sale (supply, sale), use (operation), storage, transportation and disposal; - when performing work and providing services; - when developing technical documentation (design, technological, project), including technical specifications, catalog sheets and descriptions for the products supplied (services rendered). The national standard is applied on a voluntary basis. Obligation to comply with national standards comes with a direct indication of this in the current legislation, agreements, contracts, lawfully adopted regulatory documents of federal executive authorities or enterprises of any form of ownership. The obligation to comply with the requirements of national standards adopted before July 1, 2003 remains (until the relevant technical regulations are adopted) in terms of: - protection of life or health of citizens, property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property; - protection of the environment, life or health of animals and plants; - prevention of actions that mislead purchasers, and the need for state control (state supervision) over their observance. It is not allowed to adopt and apply standards that contradict technical regulations. Since technical regulations contain the minimum necessary safety requirements, the requirements of any standard, by definition, cannot be lower than the corresponding requirements of the technical regulation, and also cannot contain design or manufacturing parameters that do not ensure compliance with the requirements of the relevant technical regulation. Thus, if any standard that satisfies the norms of the Law "On Technical Regulation" is observed, the relevant requirements of the technical regulation are met. Standards that do not ensure compliance with the norms of the technical regulation do not meet the requirements of the Law for standards, and therefore cannot be applied on the territory of the Russian Federation. Thus, the lists of national standards that can be used to comply with technical regulations are not of a normative and, moreover, not of a legal nature, but exclusively of an informational nature. 24. ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARDS. AMENDMENT AND REVISION OF THE STANDARD Standard development organization includes the following stages: development of a draft standard (first and subsequent editions); development of a draft standard (final version) and its submission for adoption; adoption and state registration of the standard; edition of the standard. In order to meet the standard needs of the population, national economy and defense of the country, it is being tested. Taking into account the results of the audit, if necessary, the development of changes to the standards, revision (development of new standards to replace the existing ones) or cancellation of standards are carried out. A change to the standard is developed when replacing, or supplementing, or eliminating individual requirements of the standard. A change to a product standard is developed with the introduction of new, more progressive requirements that will not entail a violation of the interchangeability and compatibility of new products with products manufactured according to the current standard. When a standard is revised, a new standard is developed to replace the current one. At the same time, the current standard is canceled, and the new standard indicates which one it was developed to replace. The new standard is assigned the designation of the old standard with the replacement of the last two digits of the year of adoption. The revision of the product standard is carried out when new, more progressive requirements are established, if they lead to a violation of the interchangeability of new products manufactured according to the current standard, and (or) a change in the main indicators of product quality. Accessibility of users, including foreign ones, to information about the developed and approved national standards, all-Russian classifiers of technical and economic information, as well as to these documents themselves, the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology ensures by organizing the publication of official information about these documents, as well as about international, regional standards, rules, norms and recommendations on standardization, national standards of other states, on international treaties in the field of standardization and rules for their application. Documents of the national standardization system, international standards, standardization rules, standardization norms and recommendations for standardization, national standards of other countries and rules for their application, information on international treaties in the field of standardization and conformity assessments constitute the Federal Information Fund of Technical Regulations and Standards. The rules for creating and maintaining the Federal Information Fund of Technical Regulations and Standards, as well as the rules for using this Fund are established by the Government of the Russian Federation. The Unified Information System operates in the Russian Federation, designed to provide interested parties with information about documents that are part of the Federal Information Fund of Technical Regulations and Standards. Interested parties are provided with free access to the created information resources, except in cases where, in the interests of maintaining state, official or commercial secrets, such access should be limited. The exclusive right to officially publish and distribute in the prescribed manner national standards and all-Russian classifiers belongs to the national standardization body. The publication of national standards of other countries is organized and carried out by the national standardization body in accordance with treaties and agreements with these countries. The publication, reprinting and distribution of standards of organizations is carried out by the organizations that have adopted them. 25. SYSTEM OF LEGISLATIVE AND NORMATIVE ACTS IN THE SPHERE OF TECHNICAL REGULATION IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION The system of legislative and normative acts in the field of technical regulation includes the following main elements: Federal Law "On Technical Regulation" (No. 184-FZ, hereinafter referred to as the Law); international agreements adopted by the Russian Federation in the field of technical regulation; a system (code) of general and special technical regulations; methods of calculations, testing and control of parameters adopted in accordance with the technical regulations by the Government of the Russian Federation; a set of standards - national, industry, corporate (standards of associations, self-regulatory organizations, individual enterprises). In the system of technical legislation established by the Law, the division of norms into mandatory and voluntary is fundamental. All mandatory requirements are introduced by technical regulations adopted in accordance with legally established procedures (publication of a notice of development, public discussion, etc.). Requirements that are not included in technical regulations (for example, the requirements of standards or departmental documents), according to the Law, cannot be mandatory and are only advisory in nature. The Russian Federation has developed and operates the National (state) standardization system, which is a set of interrelated standards that determine all the main aspects of practical standardization activities on a national scale. The standards of the national standardization system establish the goals and objectives of standardization, organizational issues and the methodology for performing work on standardization, categories and types of regulatory documents, standardization objects, the procedure for developing, implementing, circulating standards and other regulatory documents on standardization, canceling and adjusting them, uniform rules construction, presentation and design of standards. Such a peculiar form of legal regulation of standardization issues first appeared in the USSR in 1968. After the collapse of the USSR in 1993, a new edition of the set of standards of the national standardization system was adopted. Changes and additions to it, in comparison with a similar set of standards of previous years, bring the organization of standardization of the Russian Federation closer to international rules and take into account the realities of a market economy. These innovations are very important in light of Russia's accession to the GATT/WTO Standardization Code. The set of standards of the national standardization system includes the following main documents: GOST R 1.0-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. Basic provisions. The standard establishes general rules for the formation, maintenance and application of the provisions of the standardization system in the Russian Federation; GOST 1.1-2002. Interstate system of standardization. Terms and Definitions; GOST R 1.2-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. National standards of the Russian Federation. Rules for development, approval, updating and cancellation; GOST R 1.4-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. Organization standards. General provisions; GOST R 1.5-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. National standards of the Russian Federation. Rules for construction, presentation, design and designation; GOST R 1.8-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. Interstate standards. Rules for conducting work in the Russian Federation on the development, application, updating and termination of application; GOST R 1.9-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. Mark of compliance with the national standards of the Russian Federation. Image. Application procedure; GOST R 1.12-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. Terms and Definitions. 26. CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGNATION OF STATE STANDARDS. INTER-INDUSTRY STANDARDS National standards and all-Russian classifiers of technical, economic and social information, including the rules for their development and application, constitute a national standardization system. All the main rules and procedures of the national standardization system are set out in the following documents. GOST R 1.0-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. Basic provisions. The standard establishes general rules for the formation, maintenance and application of the provisions of the standardization system in the Russian Federation. GOST 1.1-2002. Interstate system of standardization. Terms and Definitions. GOST R 1.2-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. National standards of the Russian Federation. Rules for development, approval, updating and cancellation. GOST R 1.4-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. Organization standards. General provisions. GOST R 1.5-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. National standards of the Russian Federation. Rules of construction, presentation, design and designation. GOST R 1.8-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. Interstate standards. Rules for conducting work in the Russian Federation on the development, application, updating and termination of application. GOST R 1.9-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. Mark of compliance with the national standards of the Russian Federation. Image. Application procedure. GOST R 1.12-2004. Standardization in the Russian Federation. Terms and Definitions. Decree of the State Standard of Russia dated June 27, 2003 No. 63 recognized as national standards the current state and interstate standards put into effect before July 1, 2003 for use in the Russian Federation. In accordance with the same resolution, until the entry into force of the newly developed relevant rules, norms and recommendations on standardization, it was considered expedient to retain the symbols "GOST" and "GOST R" for the current state and interstate standards and the national standards being developed. National standards of the Russian Federation can be purchased at the territorial distribution departments of NTD and NTI (standards stores), IPK "Standards Publishing House", as well as from organizations that have agreements with the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology for the production and distribution of documents approved by it. The designation of the state standard consists of an index (GOST R), registration number and dashes separated by the last two digits of the year of adoption. In the designation of state standards included in the complex (system) of standards, in the registration number, the first digits with a dot determine the code of the complex of state standards. Sets of intersectoral standards are designed to establish the most effective sequence of organizational or technological procedures in order to ensure the goals set. All interindustry standards can be divided into the following three areas: - standards that ensure the quality of products (works, services); - management and information standards; - standards of the social sphere. If most of the systems of standards are represented by GOST and GOST R, then the Unified System for Classification and Coding of Technical, Economic and Social Information is represented by such a category of regulatory documentation as all-Russian classifiers. 27. SYSTEM OF STANDARDS OF TECHNICAL PREPARATION OF PRODUCTION. PRODUCT QUALITY STANDARDS Product quality assurance standards can be represented in the following groups: 1) technical production preparation standards (systems 2., 3., 14., 15.); 2) standards that ensure quality at the operational stage; 3) quality system standards; 4) standards that define the requirements for individual properties of products (systems 27., 29.); 5) standards according to the GOST R Certification System (code 40.); 6) standards for the accreditation system in the Russian Federation (code 51.). System of standards for technical preparation of production The basis of the technical preparation for the production of mechanical engineering and instrumentation products is design and technological preparation. Together with R&D, they constitute the stage of product creation, at which product quality is formed. At this stage, a rational combination of the interests of the customer, developer, manufacturer and consumer should also be ensured. The main task of this stage is to create a product of a high technical level while reducing the cycle and reducing the labor intensity of the development and mastering of new technology, increasing production flexibility. Complexes of standards, primarily interstate ones, are aimed at creating high-performance products: System for the development and production of products (SRPP); Unified system for design documentation (ESKD); Unified system of technological documentation (EStD); Computer-aided design system (CAD). A large place in this set of standards is given to the standardization of technical documents. The effectiveness of standardization is ensured by eliminating the cost of reissuing documents when they are transferred to other enterprises and organizations; simplification of text documents and graphic images and the associated cost reduction for the preparation and use of documents; expanding unification, respectively, in the design, development of technological processes, preparation of equipment, etc.; taking into account the requirements of computer equipment used in the manufacture and processing of documents; improving the quality of developments reflected in technical documents. The SRPP standards regulate the procedure for working at two stages of technical training: in product development - the processes of creating samples and technical documentation necessary for the organization of industrial production; putting products into production is a set of measures for the organization of industrial production. Product Quality Assurance Standards Product quality assurance standards can be represented in the following groups: - standards of technical preparation of production; - standards that ensure quality at the operational stage; - quality system standards; - standards that define the requirements for individual product properties; - standards according to the GOST R Certification System; - standards for the accreditation system in the Russian Federation. This also includes standards for operational documents - instruction manuals, passports, labels. To the average consumer, they are known as shipping documents. The fundamental standard is GOST 2.601 "ESKD. Operational documents". It defines the requirements for the structure and content of operational documents for products of complex technology. 28. STATE BODIES AND STANDARDIZATION SERVICES. TECHNICAL COMMITTEES FOR STANDARDIZATION Bodies and services of standardization - organizations, institutions, associations and their subdivisions, the main activity of which is the implementation of standardization work or the performance of certain standardization functions. The organization of work on standardization is carried out by the national standardization body of the Russian Federation (hereinafter referred to as the national standardization body). The functions of the national body for standardization are assigned by the Government of the Russian Federation to the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology. The National Standards Body performs the following functions: - approval of national standards; - adoption of programs for the development of national standards; - organization of expertise of draft national standards; - ensuring the compliance of the national standardization system with the interests of the national economy, the state of the material and technical base and scientific and technological progress; - accounting for national standards, standardization rules, norms and recommendations in this area and ensuring their availability to interested parties; - creation of technical committees for standardization and coordination of their activities; - organizing the publication of national standards and their distribution; - participation in accordance with the charters of international organizations in the development of international standards and ensuring that the interests of the Russian Federation are taken into account when they are adopted; - approval of the image of the sign of compliance with national standards; - representation of the Russian Federation in international organizations operating in the field of standardization. Standardization activities are also carried out by other federal executive bodies within their competence. These bodies in their standards can establish mandatory requirements for the quality of products (works, services), that is, create technical regulations. Organization and development of national standards, coordination, organization of examination of national standards, including those submitted by economic entities, are carried out by technical committees for standardization; the direct developer of the standard can be any person or working group of representatives of interested parties. The technical committees for standardization on a parity basis and on a voluntary basis may include representatives of federal executive bodies, scientific organizations, self-regulatory organizations, public associations of entrepreneurs and consumers. Meetings of technical committees for standardization are open, if they are not related to the discussion of problems referred to information of limited access by the current legislation. In the latter case, the procedure for admission to meetings of technical committees is determined by legislation in the field of preserving state secrets. Standardization activities are also carried out by other federal executive bodies within their competence. These bodies in their standards can establish mandatory requirements for the quality of products (works, services), that is, create technical regulations. 29. GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR BUILDING A SYSTEM OF INTERNAL REGULATORY REGULATION OF AN ENTERPRISE The internal regulatory system is a formalized set of rules that govern various aspects of the management of an organization. This regulation is carried out both at the level of general economic principles and at the level of application of these principles for specific management functions and specific management objects. To achieve these goals, the internal regulatory system solves the following main tasks: - classifies and defines the main objects of management and management functions in the enterprise; - describes the organizational (structural) construction and interaction of control objects with each other and with the external environment; - describes a set of techniques and methods of influencing control objects. The system of internal normative regulation is built on a three-level hierarchical scheme. Level 1. The document of this level is usually called "Regulations on the enterprise management system". The main purpose of the development of the document is to form the main methodological approaches to enterprise management. To achieve this goal, the document: - formulates general categories of control theory; - defines the main subjects of the external environment and formulates the principles of interaction between the enterprise and these subjects; - classifies the main objects of management at the enterprise and gives them a description; - introduces a single conceptual apparatus for all levels of SVNR (and for all levels of enterprise management); - formulates the principles of construction of documents of lower levels. Level 2. There are two categories of documents at this level of the SNR: - "Standards of the organization". - "Classifiers" and "Reference books". If in a first-level document the description of control objects can be given without taking into account the norms of external legislation, then it is recommended to provide references to these norms in the standards. "Classifiers" and "Reference books" are necessary for grouping control objects and are designed to ensure the systematization of all control objects in the enterprise. Classifiers of the organization determine the principles (signs) of grouping various control objects and methods for assigning decimal identification codes to them. The directories are lists of specific control objects at the enterprise, structured in accordance with the grouping characteristics defined in the classifiers, indicating their (control objects) personal identification decimal codes. Level 3. Documents are a collection of work instructions. Work instructions contain a description of a step-by-step algorithm of actions that must be performed by a specific performer (group of performers) in the process of implementing certain management functions in relation to certain management objects. The main purpose of work instructions is to provide "technological" support to the performer, create prerequisites for managing his activities, and ensure a higher quality of work. The sequence of development of internal regulatory documents should be determined by each enterprise independently based on its strategic goals and the current situation. 30. LEGAL BASIS FOR STANDARDIZATION. MAIN PROVISIONS OF THE LAW "ON TECHNICAL REGULATION" The legal framework for standardization is currently guided by the following principles: - mandatory (subject to mandatory regulation and state control) are only safety requirements. Consumer properties are regulated by economic and legal relations between market entities. These relations are regulated by the state not by direct regulation, but exclusively by ensuring the legality of such relations; - mandatory safety requirements are set out in special legal documents - technical regulations. General technical regulations regulate the achievements of the economy as a whole, special technical regulations regulate certain types of activities; - the introduction of mandatory norms is the prerogative of the level of national policy: federal laws, presidential decrees, ratified interstate treaties, as well as government decrees that are in force before the adoption of regulations by law. The legal framework for standardization should contribute to the achievement of the following main goals: - elimination of obstacles in the form of unreasonable administrative barriers to business development (primarily excessive departmental regulation and control, mandatory certification); - removal of restrictions for technical progress and innovations (mainly mandatory requirements of standards); - stimulating entrepreneurial initiative, including through the active involvement of business in the rule-making process. The Law "On Technical Regulation" regulates the relations arising: - in the development, adoption, application and implementation of mandatory requirements for products, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal; - development, adoption, application and execution on a voluntary basis of requirements for products, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, performance of work or provision of services; - assessment of conformity of products to mandatory requirements. The law establishes rules in the field of regulation, standardization, certification, declaration of conformity, state and other types of control in the market, in the production, storage, transportation and disposal of products. Since the entry into force of the Law (July 1, 2003), ministries and departments do not have the right to issue binding acts in the field of technical regulation, and can only issue advisory documents. According to the definition given in the Law, "technical regulation is a document that is adopted by an international treaty of the Russian Federation, ratified in the manner prescribed by the legislation of the Russian Federation, or by a federal law, or by a decree of the President of the Russian Federation, or by a decree of the Government of the Russian Federation and establishes binding and compliance with the requirements for objects of technical regulation (products, as well as buildings, structures and structures, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal)". Other requirements may be introduced only by amendments and additions to this regulation. 31. TYPES OF TECHNICAL REGULATIONS In accordance with the Law "On Technical Regulation", the regulations should include only those requirements that ensure the achievement of the following goals: - safety of life or health of citizens; - security of property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property: - environmental protection; - protection of life or health of animals and plants; - prevention of actions that mislead consumers. The Russian Federation has general technical regulations and special technical regulations. Mandatory requirements for certain types of products, processes of production, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal are determined by a combination of requirements of general technical regulations and special technical regulations. Requirements general technical regulation are obligatory for application and observance in relation to any types of products, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal. The requirements of a special technical regulation take into account the technological and other features of certain types of products, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal. General technical regulations are adopted on the following issues: safe operation and disposal of machinery and equipment; safe operation of buildings, structures, structures and safe use of territories adjacent to them; fire safety; biological safety; electromagnetic compatibility; environmental safety; nuclear and radiation safety. Special technical regulations establish requirements only for those individual types of products, processes of production, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, the degree of risk of causing harm to which is higher than the degree of risk of causing harm, taken into account by the general technical regulation. Therefore, the main feature of the general technical regulation is that it establishes minimum requirements in terms of the level of fulfillment, which apply to any type of product, production process, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal. Special technical regulations are adopted only for specific groups and types of products or other objects of technical regulation in cases where, due to their specifics, these objects require higher requirements than those established by general technical regulations. In addition, special technical regulations may establish requirements for the relevant objects that are absent in general technical regulations. Due to the fact that special technical regulations set requirements for specific objects of technical regulation, which are additional to the requirements of general technical regulations ("accumulate upwards"), they are also called "vertical" regulations. It is necessary to distinguish between the objects of technical regulation, to which, according to Art. 2 of the Law include: products, including buildings, structures and structures, processes of production, operation, storage, transportation, sale, disposal, and objects for which technical regulations can be developed. 32. STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL TECHNICAL REGULATIONS In general terms, the structure of a standard technical regulation can be represented as follows: - General provisions (including scope, definitions of concepts, etc.); - Requirements for product safety; - Process safety requirements; - Conformity assessment modes; - Transitional provisions. To build a system of technical regulations, two positions are primarily important: requirements for products and requirements for processes. Since the regulations regulate the activity as such, and not its individual components, it is inappropriate to prepare separate regulations for products and processes. A technical regulation may be limited to product requirements only if the process requirements for a given type of activity are fully described by general technical regulations. At the same time, it should be taken into account that the requirements for processes are imposed solely in terms of ensuring the safety of workers, the internal and external environment, but do not apply to those design features and characteristics of technological processes that ensure the product parameters regulated by technical legislation (Article 7, clause 4) . If the requirements for products are met, the choice of design solutions and technological processes is left to the discretion of the manufacturers (with the exception of special cases when product safety regulation is in principle impossible without regulation of designs and technologies). Technical regulations should not contain requirements for the quality and consumer properties of products, since such requirements should be regulated by market relations, and not by administrative measures. Mandatory requirements for certain types of products, processes of production, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal are determined by a combination of requirements of general technical regulations and special technical regulations. The requirements of the general technical regulation are mandatory for application and compliance with any type of product, production process, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal. The requirements of a special technical regulation take into account the technological and other features of certain types of products, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal. General technical regulations are adopted on the following issues: safe operation and disposal of machinery and equipment; safe operation of buildings, structures, structures and safe use of territories adjacent to them; fire safety; biological safety; electromagnetic compatibility; environmental safety; nuclear and radiation safety. Special technical regulations establish requirements only for those individual types of products, processes of production, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, the degree of risk of causing harm to which is higher than the degree of risk of causing harm, taken into account by the general technical regulation. 33. PACKAGE PRINCIPLE OF PREPARATION AND ADOPTION OF TECHNICAL REGULATIONS Batch principle allows you to optimize the process of making subsequent changes to technical legislation by revising consolidated rather than many individual acts. This will optimize the process of coordinating conflict positions between similar industries (for example, between dairy and fat-and-oil production), which, from an organizational and procedural point of view, is more convenient to do as part of the preparation of joint regulations than in the process of coordinating regulations introduced, reviewed and finalized separately from each other. . The developer of the draft technical regulation must: - find the subject of the right of legislative initiative, introducing this bill; - to pass the procedure of public discussion of the project established by the law. Further on the project must be received: - the conclusion of the relevant expert commission; - conclusion or review of the Government of the Russian Federation on the draft law or, in accordance with the established procedure, coordination with the interested federal executive bodies in the event that the technical regulation is adopted by a decree of the Government of the Russian Federation. After that, the project will: - pass the readings established by the regulations in the State Duma of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation; - be approved by the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation; - be approved by the President of the Russian Federation. The sequence and priorities in the development of special technical regulations should be determined according to the following main criteria: - industries in which the existing regulation and procedures form the greatest technical and administrative barriers and, accordingly, in which the introduction of technical regulations can give the greatest economic effect (as a rule, these are the areas of "fast and hard" business, in which the distance between the manufacturer and consumer, for example, food production, consumer goods, etc.); - budget-forming industries, in which the introduction of technical regulations can also give a significant economic effect; - products and production processes for which the lack of adequate regulation poses a critical threat to safety (citizens, the environment, national interests, etc.); - requirements for types of products and processes of their production, especially significant in social terms; - a number of industries with complex technical regulation, in which requirements can be quickly transferred from the current regulatory framework to new technical legislation, since these requirements are almost completely determined by technical parameters and are practically not subject to economic and administrative conditions; - blocks of requirements that need prompt harmonization with international norms in order to remove barriers to international trade, as well as to accelerate Russia's entry into the world economic space (for example, in the context of accession to the WTO). 34. STATE CONTROL AND SUPERVISION OVER COMPLIANCE WITH THE REQUIREMENTS OF TECHNICAL REGULATIONS State control and supervision (GKiN) is carried out over the observance by business entities of the mandatory requirements of technical regulations. The objects of the GKiN are products, services, technical documentation, technological processes. In terms of content, control and supervision are identical, just unlike control, supervision is carried out in relation to objects that are not under departmental subordination to the bodies that exercise it. This applies to all state bodies that have been given the right of administrative supervision in a certain area of activity - committees, federal services, inspections in the field of ecology, fire safety, labor protection, medicinal substances, sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population, mining and industry, air, sea and river boats, architecture and construction, trade, veterinary medicine, etc. In accordance with Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of June 17, 2004 No. 294 "On the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology" (clause 6), it is established that the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology performs the functions of state metrological control and supervision until the introduction of amendments to the legislative acts of the Russian Federation, and also exercises control and supervision over compliance with the mandatory requirements of state standards and technical regulations until the Government of the Russian Federation makes a decision to transfer these functions to other federal executive bodies, control and supervision over compliance with mandatory requirements. To carry out these functions in the federal districts, territorial bodies of the Federal Agency have been created and are functioning. The implementation of the GKiN is regulated by the Rules (PR 50.1.003) and the Recommendations for standardization (R 50.1.005, R 50.1.006, R 50.1.013). In case of detection of violations of the requirements of technical regulations, an inspection report of the established form is drawn up, which is the basis for issuing orders and issuing resolutions on the imposition of fines. The main form of the GKiN is a selective check, during which technical inspection, identification, testing and other procedures are carried out to ensure the reliability and objectivity of the results. So, state supervision in trade enterprises (PR 50.1.013) is carried out as follows. The state inspector, in the presence of representatives of the trade enterprise, selects samples of goods and draws up a sampling act. When sampling, their technical inspection is carried out, during which the presence of pre-sale preparation of the checked goods is established in accordance with the Rules for the sale of certain types of goods. Selected samples are subjected to tests, if necessary. Based on the results of the inspection, an act is drawn up, which is signed by the head of the inspection and the state inspector. When establishing the fact of violations of the mandatory requirements of state standards, the state inspector issues an order to the business entity, applies fines to him and officials in accordance with the legislative acts of the Russian Federation. 35. ECONOMIC, TECHNICAL, INFORMATION AND SOCIAL EFFICIENCY OF STANDARDIZATION WORKS The effectiveness of standardization work is understood as the ratio of the social effect of applying the results of standardization work in the national economy and the costs associated with their application. In modern conditions, the effectiveness of standardization work is manifested both in the process and in the results of the activities of specific business entities of various forms of ownership, and in all areas - in scientific research and development work, in production, circulation, operation and disposal of products. Technical efficiency of standardization work can be expressed in relative indicators of technical effects resulting from the application of the standard: for example, in an increase in the level of safety, a reduction in harmful effects and emissions, a decrease in the material or energy intensity of production or operation, an increase in resource, reliability, etc. Information efficiency of standardization work can be expressed in achieving the mutual understanding necessary for society, the unity of the presentation and perception of information, including in the commodity-legal relations of business entities with each other and government bodies, in international scientific, technical and trade and economic relations. Social efficiency is that the mandatory requirements for products implemented in practice have a positive impact on the health and standard of living of the population, as well as on other socially significant aspects. Under the economic effect of standardization understand the savings of living and materialized labor in social production as a result of the introduction of the standard, taking into account the costs necessary for this. It can be expressed in cash or in kind (reducing labor intensity, saving materials, reducing the need for equipment and space, reducing the duration of design and manufacturing cycles, etc.) if the costs are measured in the same units as the savings. The total national economic effect of standardization metal-cutting machines, presses, construction and road machines, measuring instruments and other products are defined as the difference between the reduced costs for the creation, annual production and operation of products before (P1) and after (P2) the introduction of the relevant standards: EU = P1 - P2. The above costs include total capital (CG) and total current (CS) costs. The KU indicator takes into account the costs of research and development work necessary for standardization, the costs of pilot and mass production, the costs of testing the machine and its individual elements. The SU indicator takes into account the costs of manufacturing products or performing work using a standardized machine, including the wages of production workers and workers of other categories, the cost of raw materials and materials, depreciation, as well as the costs of current and scheduled preventive repairs and other operating costs for the entire life of the machine. Given costs: P1 \u0,12d SU + Yong KU, where Yong is the standard coefficient of investment efficiency, which, in the absence of industry standard values, is taken equal to XNUMX. 36. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION (ISO) AND INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION (IEC) In 1946, under the auspices of the UN, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO - International Standards Organization), ISO, is a non-governmental organization that develops international standards and international cooperation in the field of standardization, headquartered in London. More than 120 countries participate in the work of ISO. The main goal of ISO is to promote the development of standardization on a global scale in order to facilitate international trade and mutual assistance, as well as to expand cooperation in the field of intellectual, scientific, technical and economic activities. ISO's mandate includes: - taking measures aimed at simplifying, improving the methods of harmonizing standards in all areas of their application on a global scale; - development, adoption of international standards, their information support; - organization of internal information flows; - establishing cooperation with other international organizations to jointly address related issues. The highest body of ISO is the General Assembly. Between sessions of the General Assembly, the activities of the organization are managed by a Council headed by the President of ISO. Permanent and temporary committees of the Council are engaged in consideration and preparation of decisions on specific issues. An additional bureau has been created under the Council, which manages the technical committees of ISO. International Standards are drafted directly by working groups operating within the framework of technical committees. The other bodies of the ISO Council are the Technical Bureau and six committees. Let's take a brief look at the activities of the Consumption Committee (COPOLCO). The tasks of COPOLCO include: — exploring ways to help consumers get the most out of product standardization, and identifying measures to be taken to increase consumer participation in national and international standardization; - development of recommendations from the standpoint of standardization aimed at providing information to consumers, protecting their interests, as well as programs for their training on standardization issues; - summarizing the experience of consumer participation in standardization work, the application of standards for consumer goods, and other standardization issues of interest to consumers. Another no less authoritative organization - the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) - develops standards in the field of electrical engineering, radio electronics, and communications. It was created in 1906, that is, long before the formation of ISO. The diversity of education and the different orientations of the IEC and ISO determined the fact of the parallel existence of two large international organizations. Taking into account the commonality of the tasks of ISO and IEC, as well as the possibility of duplicating the activities of individual technical bodies, an agreement was concluded between these organizations on the delimitation and coordination of the scope of activities. 37. REGIONAL SYSTEM OF STANDARDIZATION OF COUNTRIES OF THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY There are seven regional standardization organizations in the world - in Scandinavia, Latin America, the Arab region, Africa, the United European Union (EU). The experience of standardization in the EU is most interesting. The integration of the European Economic Community (EEC) has formed a single internal market that serves a total of more than 320 million people in England, Belgium, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Italy, Spain, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and France. At the same time, priority is given to the development of European standardization in the elimination of national barriers. The most important legal act aimed at protecting the EU countries from the distribution of low-quality products was the Law "On Manufacturer's Liability for the Release of Defective Products" adopted in 1985. All EU Member States were required within three years from the date of its publication (30.07.1985/XNUMX/XNUMX) to bring their legal and administrative acts relating to liability for the release of defective products in accordance with this Law. This Law established the presumption of the manufacturer's guilt for damages resulting from a defective product. The injured consumer no longer has to prove that the product was manufactured with violations, it is enough for him to indicate the presence of a defect in the product and the causal relationship with the damage suffered, as well as the amount of damage. The manufacturer knows his production well and if he fails to prove his innocence (and the jurisdiction imposes very high requirements), then he is liable for the resulting damage. Damage in this Law means: - damage caused by death or damage to health; - damage or destruction of any property (other than the defective product itself) with a value of at least 500 euros. The EU harmonization directives establish requirements for products that are potentially hazardous to humans, the environment, and infrastructure. A significant part of the products are not covered by these directives and, therefore, their introduction into circulation is not regulated at the legislative level. Since the legislation does not impose any requirements on such products, nothing can restrict the manufacturer when introducing these products to the market. At the same time, the establishment, confirmation or proof of the conformity of products to something is also not required. It is generally accepted that products that do not fall under the law fall into the legally unregulated area, which is also called free, voluntary or unregulated. The regulatory framework for standardization in the EU is well developed technical legislation. The peculiarity and "strength" of most European standards lies in the fact that, as a rule, they are based on the best standards of individual European countries. For example, Sweden's standards for electromagnetic safety of personal computers, widely known for their high technical level, form the basis of a single EU standard. 38. MODULAR CONCEPT OF CONFORMITY ASSESSMENT The modular concept of conformity assessment consists of 6 modules. Module 1 Manufacturer's declaration of product conformity with the requirements of EU directives. The manufacturer, without the involvement of a third party, declares under his sole responsibility that the products put into circulation meet all the requirements of the EU directives and, therefore, all the requirements of the national legislation of each EU member state. The manufacturer draws up a declaration of conformity and marks the product with a sign. The notified body reserves the right to inspect certain aspects of the product as well as to carry out sampling controls. Module 2 Testing samples for compliance with EU directives and their admission to the market. The manufacturer shall provide the notified body with technical information and type samples of the products developed. The notified body checks the conformity of the submitted samples with EU legislation (directives), if necessary, tests them and issues a certificate of putting the products into circulation in the EU. Module 3 Declaration of the manufacturer on the conformity of products with approved samples. The manufacturer, without the involvement of a third party, declares under his sole responsibility that the products put into circulation are in full conformity with the approved model and thus comply with all requirements of EU directives and all requirements of national legislation. The manufacturer draws up a declaration of conformity and marks the product with a sign. The notified body reserves the right to inspect certain aspects of the product as well as to carry out sampling controls. Module 4 Selective testing of products entering the market for compliance with approved samples. The notified body shall carry out statistical samplings of the tests necessary to demonstrate conformity of the products with the approved design. After the manufacturer has received a positive test certificate from the notified body, he draws up a declaration of conformity and marks the product with a sign, indicating next to it the registration number of the notified body that carried out the tests. Module 5 Individual testing of products for compliance with the requirements of EU directives. The notified body tests and certifies that the product complies with all the requirements of the EU directives and therefore all the requirements of the national legislation of each EU Member State. The manufacturer, after receiving positive test results, draws up a declaration of conformity and marks the products with a sign, indicating next to it the registration number of the notified body that carried out the tests. Module 6 Manufacturer's declaration of product conformity with the requirements of EU directives in the presence of a quality system according to ISO 9001. The manufacturer must have a quality system according to the ISO 9001 model. When the product is put into circulation, the manufacturer marks the products with the mark and indicates next to it the registration number of the notified body that has recognized his quality system. 39. DEFINITION OF METROLOGY AS A SCIENCE. THEORETICAL, APPLIED AND LEGAL METROLOGY Метрология - this is the science of measurements, methods for achieving their unity and the required accuracy. The word "metrology" is formed from two Greek words: "metron" - measure and "logos" - doctrine. The literal translation of the word "metrology" is the doctrine of measures. For a long time, metrology remained mainly a descriptive science of various measures and the relationships between them. Measurement - cognitive process, which consists in comparing a given value with a known value, taken as a unit. The subject of metrology is the processing of quantitative information about the properties of objects and processes with a given reliability. Measures in Rus': length - arshin, sazhen (3 arshin), verst; weight - pood (16,4 kg); liquid bodies - barrels, buckets, mugs, bottles. In the XV-XVIII centuries. in connection with the rapid growth of science, it became necessary to measure (barometers, hydrometers, manometers (water pressure), steam engines (power is measured in horsepower)). In the XIX-XX centuries. there are new physical discoveries, there is a need for measurement in atomic and molecular physics. In 1827, a commission of exemplary weights and measures was formed in Russia. DI. Mendeleev played a major role in the development of the metrological service, heading it from 1892 to 1907. In 1970, the State Standard of the USSR was formed, in 1993 the State Standard was transformed into the State Standard of Russia. In the modern sense, metrology is the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity and ways to achieve the required accuracy. The main areas of metrology include: - general theory of measurements; - units of physical quantities and their systems; - methods and measuring instruments; methods for determining the accuracy of measurements; - the basis for ensuring the uniformity of measurements and the uniformity of measuring instruments; - standards and exemplary measuring instruments; methods for transferring unit sizes from standards and exemplary measuring instruments to working measuring instruments. The main legislative document in metrology is the Law "On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements", adopted in 1992, which is aimed at protecting the rights and interests of citizens, the country's economy from negative consequences, unreliable measurement results. Metrology is divided into theoretical, applied and legislative. Theoretical metrology deals with issues of fundamental research, the creation of a system of units of measurement, physical constants, the development of new methods of measurement. Applied (practical) metrology deals with issues of practical application in various fields of activity of the results of theoretical studies in the framework of metrology. legal metrology includes a set of interdependent rules and norms aimed at ensuring the uniformity of measurements, which are elevated to the rank of legal provisions (by authorized state authorities), are binding and are under the control of the state. Its main task is to create and improve the system of state standards that establish rules, requirements and norms that determine the organization and methodology for carrying out work to ensure the unity and accuracy of measurements, as well as the organization and functioning of the relevant public service. 40. OBJECTS AND SUBJECTS OF METROLOGY The object of metrology are physical quantities. The concept of "physical quantity" in metrology, as in physics, refers to a property of physical objects (systems) that is qualitatively common to many objects, but quantitatively individual for each object, i.e. a property that can be for one object one or another number of times more or less than for another (for example, length, mass, density, temperature, force, speed). The quantitative content of the property corresponding to the concept of "physical quantity" in the given object is the size of the physical quantity. The set of quantities interconnected by dependencies forms a system of physical quantities. Objectively existing dependencies between physical quantities are represented by a number of independent equations. Number of Equations m is always less than the number of values n. Therefore, m-values of this system are determined through other values, and n - m-values - independently of others. The last quantities are usually called the basic physical quantities, and the rest - derivative physical quantities. The presence of a number of systems of units of physical quantities, as well as a significant number of non-systemic units, the inconvenience associated with recalculation during the transition from one system of units to another, required the unification of units of measurement. The growth of scientific, technical and economic ties between different countries necessitated such unification on an international scale. A unified system of units of physical quantities was required, practically convenient and covering various areas of measurement. At the same time, it had to preserve the principle of coherence (equality to unity of the coefficient of proportionality in the equations of connection between physical quantities). In Russia, there is GOST 8.417-2002, which prescribes the mandatory use of SI. It lists the units of measurement, gives their Russian and international names, and establishes the rules for their use. According to these rules, only international designations are allowed to be used in international documents and on instrument scales. In internal documents and publications, either international or Russian designations can be used (but not both at the same time). Derived units of the International System of Units are formed using the simplest equations between quantities in which the numerical coefficients are equal to one. So, for linear speed, as a defining equation, you can use the expression for the speed of uniform motion v = l / t. With the length of the path traveled (in meters) and the time t for which this path has been traveled (in seconds), the speed is expressed in meters per second (m / s). Therefore, the SI unit of speed - meter per second - is the speed of a rectilinearly and uniformly moving point, at which it moves a distance of 1 m in time tc. Subjects of metrology: - state metrological service; - metrological services of federal executive bodies and legal entities; - metrological organizations. 41. DEFINITION, TYPES AND METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS Measurement - this is finding the value of a physical quantity empirically using special technical means called measuring instruments. The resulting information is called measurement information. Measurements are based on certain principles. Measuring principle is a set of physical phenomena on which measurements are based. The set of methods for using the principles and means of measurement is defined as a measurement method. The measurement method is the main characteristic of specific measurements. There are two main measurement methods: the direct evaluation method and the comparison method. Direct evaluation method - a measurement method in which the value of a quantity is determined directly from the reading device of a direct-acting measuring device. In the NTD and literature, this method is sometimes called the direct conversion method. Comparison method - a measurement method in which the measured value is compared with the value reproduced by the measure. The comparison method is implemented in practice in the form of the following modifications: the zero method, in which the resulting effect of the impact of quantities on the comparison device is brought to zero (it is also called compensation); differential method, in which they form and measure the difference between the measured and known quantities, reproducible by the measure; a coincidence method in which the difference between the measured value and the value reproduced by the measure is measured using the coincidence of scale marks or periodic signals; a method of opposition, in which the measured value and the value reproduced by the measure simultaneously act on the comparison device, with the help of which the ratio between these values \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbis established. The main properties of the measurement state: - accuracy of measurement results; - reproducibility of measurement results; - convergence of measurement results; - the speed of obtaining results; - unity of measurements. At the same time, the reproducibility of measurement results is understood as the closeness of measurement results of the same quantity, obtained in different places, by different methods, by different means, by different operators, at different times, but under the same measurement conditions (temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.). d.). The convergence of measurement results is the closeness of the results of measurements of the same quantity, carried out repeatedly using the same means, by the same method, under the same conditions and with the same care. Measurement is a mapping of an empirical system into a numerical system that preserves the order of relationships between objects. The classical concept of measurement as a way of assigning variable values to objects is called estimation. The display of the property of the object on the scale is carried out here in arbitrary units. The measurement itself requires the definition of a unit - the standard of the scale. In this case, only spatial and temporal features can be measured, as well as abundance - additive quantities. However, in the social and behavioral sciences, a broader view of measurement has been recognized as the attribution of values to objects in accordance with a given system of relations at various levels. 42. CLASSIFICATION OF MEASUREMENT TYPES Measurements are distinguished by the method of obtaining information, by the nature of changes in the measured value during the measurement process, by the amount of measurement information, in relation to the main units. According to the method of obtaining information, measurements are divided into direct, indirect, cumulative and joint. Direct measurements is a direct comparison of a physical quantity with its measure. For example, when determining the length of an object with a ruler, the desired value (quantitative expression of the length value) is compared with a measure, i.e. a ruler. Indirect measurements - differ from direct ones in that the desired value of the quantity is established based on the results of direct measurements of such quantities that are associated with the desired specific dependence. So, if you measure the current strength with an ammeter, and the voltage with a voltmeter, then according to the known functional relationship of all three quantities, you can calculate the power of the electrical circuit. Cumulative measurements - are associated with the solution of a system of equations compiled from the results of simultaneous measurements of several homogeneous quantities. The solution of the system of equations makes it possible to calculate the desired value. Joint measurements - these are measurements of two or more inhomogeneous physical quantities to determine the relationship between them. Cumulative and joint measurements often used in measurements of various parameters and characteristics in the field of electrical engineering. According to the nature of the change in the measured value during the measurement process, there are statistical, dynamic and static measurements. Statistical measurements associated with the determination of the characteristics of random processes, sound signals, noise levels, etc. Static measurements take place when the measured value is practically constant. Dynamic measurements are associated with such quantities that undergo certain changes during the measurement process. Ideal static and dynamic measurements are rare in practice. According to the amount of measurement information, single and multiple measurements are distinguished. Single measurements - this is one measurement of one quantity, i.e. the number of measurements is equal to the number of measured quantities. The practical application of this type of measurement is always associated with large errors, therefore, at least three single measurements should be carried out and the final result should be found as the arithmetic mean. Multiple measurements characterized by an excess of the number of measurements of the number of measured quantities. The advantage of multiple measurements is a significant reduction in the influence of random factors on the measurement error. According to the measurement method used - a set of methods for using the principles and means of measurement, there are: - method of direct assessment; - method of comparison with the measure; - method of opposition; - differential method; - zero method; - substitution method; - matching method. According to the conditions that determine the accuracy of the result, measurements are divided into three classes: measurements of the highest possible accuracy achievable with the existing level of technology; control and verification measurements, the error of which should not exceed a certain specified value; technical (working) measurements, in which the error of the measurement result is determined by the characteristics of the measuring instruments. 43. TYPES OF SCALE AND THEIR FEATURES Scale - this is an ordered series of marks corresponding to the ratio of successive values of the measured quantities. Name scale (nominal scale). This is the simplest of all scales. In it, numbers act as labels and serve to detect and distinguish between objects under study. There is no more-less relationship in this scale, so some believe that the use of a scale of names should not be considered a measurement. When using the naming scale, only some mathematical operations can be performed. For example, its numbers cannot be added and subtracted, but you can count how many times (how often) a particular number occurs. Order scale. The places occupied by quantities in the scale of order are called ranks, and the scale itself is called rank or non-metric. With the help of order scales, it is possible to measure qualitative indicators that do not have a strict quantitative measure. These scales are especially widely used in the humanities: pedagogy, psychology, and sociology. More mathematical operations can be applied to the ranks of the order scale than to the numbers of the denomination scale. Interval scale. This is such a scale in which numbers are not only ordered by rank, but also separated by certain intervals. The feature that distinguishes it from the scale of ratios described below is that the zero point is chosen arbitrarily. The results of measurements on the scale of intervals can be processed by all mathematical methods, except for the calculation of ratios. These interval scales give an answer to the question "how much more?", but do not allow us to state that one value of the measured quantity is so many times greater or less than another. For example, if the temperature has risen from 10 to 20 degrees Celsius, then it cannot be said that it has become twice as warm. Relationship scale. This scale differs from the interval scale only in that it strictly defines the position of the zero point. Due to this, the scale of ratios does not impose any restrictions on the mathematical apparatus used to process the results of observations. On the scale of ratios, those quantities are also measured that are formed as the difference of numbers counted on the scale of intervals. By measuring the length of an object, we find out how many times this length is greater than the length of another body, taken as a unit of length (meter ruler in this case), etc. If we restrict ourselves only to the use of ratio scales, then we can give another (narrower, more specific ) definition of measurement: to measure a quantity means to find empirically its relation to the corresponding unit of measurement. Scale of absolute values. In many cases, the magnitude of something is directly measured. For example, the number of defects in a product, the number of units of manufactured products, how many students are present at a lecture, the number of years lived, etc. are directly calculated. Such a scale of absolute values has the same properties as the ratio scale, with the only difference that the values indicated on this scale have absolute, not relative values. The results of measurements on the scale of absolute values have the highest reliability, information content and sensitivity to measurement inaccuracies. 44. LAW "ON ENSURING THE UNITY OF MEASUREMENTS". RESPONSIBILITY FOR VIOLATION OF THE LEGISLATION ON METROLOGY In 1993, the Law "On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements" was adopted. Prior to that, there were essentially no legislative norms in the field of metrology in our country, and the norms were established by government decrees. Objectives of the Law: - protection of the rights and legitimate interests of citizens, the established legal order and the economy of the Russian Federation from the negative consequences of unreliable measurement results; - promotion of scientific, technical and economic progress based on the use of state standards of units of quantities and the use of measurement results of guaranteed accuracy, expressed in units allowed for use in the country; - creation of favorable conditions for the development of international and intercompany relations; - regulation of relations between state authorities of the Russian Federation with legal entities and individuals on the issues of manufacture, production, operation, repair, sale and import of measuring instruments; - adaptation of the Russian measurement system to world practice. The Law "On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements" establishes and legislates the basic concepts adopted for the purposes of the Law: the uniformity of measurements, the measuring instrument, the standard of the unit of measure, the state standard of the unit of measure, regulatory documents to ensure the uniformity of measurements, the metrological service, metrological control and supervision, verification and calibration of measuring instruments, certificate of approval of the type of measuring instruments, accreditation for the right to verify measuring instruments, calibration certificate. The main articles of the Law establish: - organizational structure of state management by ensuring the uniformity of measurements; - regulatory documents to ensure the uniformity of measurements; - units of quantities and state standards of units of quantities; - means and methods of measurements. The law defines the State Metrological Service and other services for ensuring the uniformity of measurements, the metrological services of state administrative bodies and legal entities, as well as the types and areas of distribution of state metrological control and supervision. Separate articles of the Law contain provisions on calibration and certification of measuring instruments and establish types of liability for violation of the Law. The law introduces a voluntary system of certification of measuring instruments for compliance with metrological norms and rules, as well as the requirements of the Russian system for the calibration of measuring instruments. The law "On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements" provides for the legal liability of violators of metrological rules and norms. Article 25 provides for the possibility of bringing violators to administrative, civil or criminal liability. Civil liability arises in situations where, as a result of violations of metrological rules and norms, property or personal damage has been caused to legal entities or individuals. Disciplinary responsibility for violation of metrological rules and norms is determined by the decision of the administration of the enterprise (organization) on the basis of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation. 45. BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS. UNITY OF MEASUREMENTS К basic concepts related to measuring instruments include the following concepts and their definitions: - unity of measurements - the state of measurements, in which their results are expressed in legal units of quantities and measurement errors do not go beyond the established boundaries with a given probability; - measuring instruments - a technical device intended for measurements; - standard of a unit of quantity - a measuring instrument designed to reproduce and store a unit of quantity in order to transfer its size to other measuring instruments of a given value; - state standard of a unit of quantity - a standard of a unit of quantity, recognized by the decision of the authorized state body as the initial one on the territory of the Russian Federation; - regulatory documents to ensure the uniformity of measurements - state standards, international (regional) standards, rules, regulations, instructions and recommendations applied in the prescribed manner; - metrological service - a set of subjects of activity and types of work aimed at ensuring the uniformity of measurements; - metrological control and supervision - activities carried out by the body of the state metrological service or the metrological service of a legal entity in order to verify compliance with the established metrological rules and norms; - verification of the measuring instrument - a set of operations performed by the bodies of the state metrological service (other authorized bodies, organizations) in order to determine and confirm the compliance of the measuring instrument with the established technical requirements; - calibration of measuring instruments - a set of operations performed to determine and confirm the actual values of metrological characteristics and (or) suitability for use of a measuring instrument that is not subject to state metrological control and supervision. The entire social practice of people's activities and especially their cognitive process require the sameness, the unity of essentially similar measurements. Therefore, there were various units of measurement - measures. The legal basis for the implementation of the uniformity of measurements is legal metrology, which creates state acts and normative documents of various levels that regulate metrological rules, requirements and norms. The legal guarantee of ensuring the uniformity of measurements is administrative and criminal liability for violation of the requirements of legal metrology. Organizational support for the uniformity of measurements is carried out by the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology and its subdivisions in the regions of the country, as well as departmental metrological services. The technical basis for the uniformity of measurements is a storage system for standards, as well as a system for reproducing and distributing prototypes or equivalents with the transfer of information about them to all interested parties. The economic factor of ensuring the uniformity of measurements consists in the objective requirements for this to create the necessary products and their market exchange of goods. Actually, all practical economics needs the unity of measurements of properties, their combinations, qualities, values, etc. 46. MEASURES, MEASURING INSTRUMENTS, CONVERTERS, INSTALLATIONS, SYSTEMS measure called a measuring instrument designed to reproduce physical quantities of a given size. This type of measuring instruments includes weights, end measures of length, etc. In practice, single-valued and multi-valued measures are used, as well as sets and stores of measures. Unambiguous measures reproduce values of only one size (weight). Multi-valued measures reproduce several dimensions of a physical quantity. Measuring transducer - this is a measuring instrument that serves to convert the signal of measuring information into a form convenient for processing or storage, as well as transferring it to an indicating device. Measuring transducers are either included in the design scheme of the measuring device, or are used in conjunction with it, but the transducer signal cannot be directly perceived by the observer. The value to be converted is called the input value, and the result of the transformation is called the output value. The main metrological characteristic of the measuring transducer is the ratio between the input and output quantities, called the conversion function. Converters are divided into primary (directly perceiving the measured value), transmitting, at the output of which the value takes on a form convenient for recording or transmitting over a distance; intermediate, working in combination with primary ones and not affecting the change in the kind of physical quantity. Measuring instruments - These are measuring instruments that allow you to receive measurement information in a form that is convenient for the user to understand. There are direct measuring instruments and comparison instruments. Direct action devices display the measured value on the indicating device, which has the appropriate graduation in units of this value. There is no change in the genus of the physical quantity. Direct action devices include, for example, ammeters, voltmeters, thermometers, etc. Comparators are designed to compare measured quantities with quantities whose values are known. Such devices are widely used for scientific purposes, as well as in practice for measuring such quantities as the brightness of radiation sources, compressed air pressure, etc. Measuring installations and systems - this is a set of measuring instruments, combined on a functional basis with auxiliary devices, for measuring one or more physical quantities of the measurement object. Typically, such systems are automated and provide input of information into the system, automation of the measurement process itself, processing and display of measurement results for their perception by the user. Measuring accessories are auxiliary means of measuring quantities. They are needed to calculate corrections to measurement results when a high degree of accuracy is required. For example, a thermometer can be an aid if the instrument readings are reliable at a strictly regulated temperature; psychrometer - if the environmental humidity is strictly stipulated. 47. METROLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS Metrological measuring instrument - this is a measuring instrument intended for metrological purposes: reproduction of a unit and its storage or transfer of the size of a unit to working measuring instruments. Metrological measuring instruments include standards, exemplary measuring instruments, verification installations, standard samples. According to the level of standardization, standardized and non-standardized measuring instruments are distinguished. Standardized are measuring instruments manufactured in accordance with the requirements of the state standard and corresponding to the technical characteristics of the established type of measuring instruments obtained on the basis of state tests, entered in the State Register of measuring instruments. Non-standardized - unique measuring instruments designed for a special measuring task, for which there is no need to standardize the requirements. They are not subject to state tests, but are subject to metrological certification. The highest link in the metrological transmission of unit sizes are standards. Unit standard - a measuring instrument (or a set of instruments) that provides reproduction and (or) storage of a unit in order to transfer its size to measuring instruments lower in the verification scheme, made according to a special specification and officially approved in the prescribed manner as a standard. The standard that provides the reproduction of the unit with the highest accuracy in the country (compared to other standards of the same unit) is called the primary one. A special standard reproduces the unit under special conditions and replaces the primary standard under these conditions. The primary, or special, standard, officially approved as the initial one for the country, is called the state standard. In metrological practice, secondary standards are widely used, the values \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbof which are set according to primary standards. Secondary standards are part of the subordinate means of storing units and transmitting their size. They are created and approved in those cases when it is necessary to ensure the least deterioration of the state standard. According to their purpose, secondary standards are divided into copy standards, comparison standards, witness standards and working standards. Reference copy is designed to transfer unit sizes to working standards. It is not always a physical copy of the state standard. Witness reference designed to check the safety of the state standard and to replace it in case of damage or loss. Comparison standard are used to compare standards that, for one reason or another, cannot be directly compared with each other. Working standard used to transfer the size of a unit to exemplary measuring instruments of the highest accuracy, and in some cases - to the most accurate measuring instruments. An exemplary measuring instrument is a measure, a measuring device or a measuring transducer that serves to verify other measuring instruments against them and is approved as exemplary. Verification of measuring instruments - determination by the metrological body of the error of measuring instruments and establishing its suitability for use. 48. REGULATED METROLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Under standardization of metrological characteristics refers to the quantitative assignment of certain nominal values and permissible deviations from these values. The normalization of metrological characteristics makes it possible to estimate the measurement error, achieve interchangeability of measuring instruments, provide the possibility of comparing measuring instruments with each other and assessing the errors of measuring systems and installations based on the metrological characteristics of their constituent measuring instruments. It is the rationing of metrological characteristics that distinguishes the measuring instrument from other similar technical means. For each type of measuring instruments, based on their specifics and purpose, a certain set of metrological characteristics is standardized, which is indicated in the regulatory and technical documentation for the measuring instrument. This complex should include such characteristics that make it possible to determine the error of a given measuring instrument under known operating conditions of its use. The general list of the main normalized metrological characteristics of the measuring instrument, the forms of their presentation and the methods of normalization are established in GOST 8.009-72. It includes: - measurement limits, scale limits; - division value of a uniform scale of an analog instrument or a multi-valued measure, with an uneven scale - the minimum division value; - output code, number of digits of the code, nominal price of the unit of the smallest digit of digital measuring instruments; - the nominal value of a single measure, the nominal static characteristic of the conversion of the measuring transducer; - error of measuring instruments; - variation of instrument readings or transducer output signal; - total input impedance of the measuring device; - total output impedance of the measuring transducer or measure; - non-informative parameters of the output signal of the measuring transducer or measure; - dynamic characteristics of measuring instruments; - influence functions; - the greatest allowable changes in the metrological characteristics of measuring instruments in the working conditions of use. One of the main metrological characteristics of measuring transducers is the static conversion characteristic. It establishes the dependence of the informative parameter of the output signal of the measuring transducer on the informative parameter of the input signal. Rationing of metrological characteristics is necessary to solve the following tasks: - giving the entire set of the same type of measuring instruments the required identical properties and reducing their range; - ensuring the possibility of assessing instrumental errors and comparing measuring instruments in terms of accuracy; - ensuring the possibility of estimating the error of measuring systems by the errors of individual measuring instruments. The errors inherent in specific instances of measuring instruments are established only for exemplary measuring instruments during their certification. 49. REPRODUCTION ERROR OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS The error of the instrument characterizes the difference between its readings and the true or actual value of the measured value. The error of the converter is determined by the difference between the nominal (i.e. attributed to the converter) characteristics of the conversion or conversion factor from their true value. According to the method of expression, errors are distinguished: - absolute error of the device - the difference between the readings of the device and the true value of the measured value; - relative error of the device - the ratio of the absolute error of the device to the true (real) value of the measured value; - the reduced error of the device - the ratio in percent of the absolute error of the device to the normalizing value. Depending on the behavior of the measured value in time, a distinction is made between static and dynamic errors, as well as an error in dynamic mode. Static error - the error of the measuring instrument used to measure a constant value (for example, the amplitude of a periodic signal). Error in dynamic mode - the error of the measuring instrument used to measure the time-variable quantity. Depending on the nature of the manifestation of errors, they are divided into systematic, random and gross. Systematic error - component of the measurement error, which remains constant or regularly changes during repeated measurements of the same value. random error - component of the measurement error, which changes randomly with repeated measurements of the same value. Gross error is a measurement error that is significantly greater than expected under given conditions. Gross error can be both random and systematic. Depending on the nature of the influence on the measurement result, the errors are divided into additive and multiplicative. Additive called the error, the value of which does not depend on the value of the measured quantity. Multiplicative called the error, the value of which changes with a change in the measured value. Depending on the source of occurrence, four main components of the measurement error are distinguished. Methodological error (measurement method error) arises due to the imperfection of the measurement method and processing of their results. As a rule, this error component is systematic. Instrumental error is determined by the errors of the measuring instruments used for measurement. It is necessary to clearly distinguish measurement errors from the errors of the measuring instruments used for their implementation. Error of measuring instruments - this is only one of the components of the measurement error, namely the instrumental error. Subjective error due to the individual characteristics of the experimenter. This component can be both systematic and random. The accuracy of measuring instruments is a quality that reflects the proximity to zero of its error. The accuracy class is a generalized characteristic of measuring instruments, determined by the limits of permissible basic and additional errors, as well as a number of other properties that affect the accuracy of measurements carried out with their help. 50. ADJUSTMENT OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Using the methods of the theory of accuracy, it is always possible to find such tolerances for the parameters of the elements of the measuring instrument, the observance of which would guarantee, even without adjustment, their receipt with errors below the allowable limits. However, in many cases these tolerances turn out to be so small that it becomes technologically unfeasible to manufacture a device with the given limits of permissible errors. There are two ways to get out of the situation: firstly, to expand the tolerances for the parameters of some elements of the devices and introduce additional adjustment units into its design that can compensate for the effect of deviations of these parameters from their nominal values, and secondly, to carry out a special calibration of the measuring device. In most cases, it is possible to find or provide for such elements in the measuring device, the variation of the parameters of which most noticeably affects its systematic error, mainly the circuit error, additive and multiplicative errors. In general, the design of the measuring instrument should provide for two adjustment nodes: zero adjustment and sensitivity adjustment. Zero adjustment reduce the influence of the additive error, which is constant for each point of the scale, and sensitivity adjustment reduce multiplicative errors that change linearly with a change in the measured value. Proper adjustment of zero and span reduces the effect of instrument circuit error. In addition, some devices are equipped with devices for adjusting the circuit error. Measuring instruments with a sensitivity adjustment unit have higher metrological characteristics. The presence of such an adjustment allows you to rotate the static characteristic, which opens up great opportunities for reducing the circuit error and, mainly, the multiplicative error. So, by simultaneously adjusting zero and sensitivity, it is possible to reduce the systematic error to zero at once at several points on the instrument scale. The values of the systematic errors remaining after adjustment at other points of the scale depend on the correct choice of such points. The theory of adjustment must answer the question of which scale points should be chosen as adjustment points. However, a general solution to this problem has not yet been found. The difficulty of the solution is aggravated by the fact that the position of these points on the scale is determined not only by the scheme and design of the device, but also by the technology of manufacturing its elements and assemblies. In practice, the initial and final, average and final, or initial, average and final values of the measured quantity in the measurement range are taken as adjustment points. At the same time, the values of the systematic error are close to the minimum possible, since in reality the adjustment points are often located close to the beginning, middle, or end of the scale. Thus, under adjusting measuring instruments is understood as a set of operations aimed at reducing the basic error to values corresponding to the limits of its permissible values by compensating for the systematic component of the error of measuring instruments, i.e. circuit errors, multiplicative and additive errors. 51. GRADUATION AND CALIBRATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS graduation called the process of putting marks on the scales of measuring instruments, as well as determining the values of the measured quantity corresponding to already marked marks for compiling calibration curves or tables. Distinguish the following scaling methods. 1. Use of standard scales. For the vast majority of working and many exemplary devices, typical scales are used, which are manufactured in advance in accordance with the equation of the static characteristic of an ideal device. When adjusting the parameters of the elements of the device, experimentally give such values at which the error at the adjustment points becomes equal to zero. 2. Individual graduation of scales. Individual calibration of the scales is carried out in cases where the static characteristic of the device is non-linear or close to linear, but the nature of the change in the systematic error in the measurement range randomly changes from device to device of this type so that the adjustment does not reduce the main error to the limits of its permissible values. 3. Graduation of the conditional scale. A scale is called conditional, equipped with some conditional evenly applied divisions, for example, through a millimeter or an angular degree. As a result, the dependence of the number of divisions of the scale passed by the pointer on the values of the measured value is determined. This dependence is presented in the form of a table or graph. Calibration - this is a method of verification of measuring instruments, which consists in comparing various measures, their combinations or scale marks in various combinations and calculating, based on the results of comparisons, the values of individual measures or scale marks based on the known value of one of them. It should be noted that a number of verification methods provide for obtaining data on the actual values of the MI metrological characteristics, and then comparing these data with established technical requirements, i.e., calibration is carried out at a certain stage in verification; such a verification procedure is acceptable for use in calibration. In a number of methods, confirmation of compliance with the requirements is carried out without fixing the actual values of the metrological characteristics; such methods need some additions. Naturally, the standards used for calibration must have confirmation of the conformity of their metrological characteristics in strict accordance with state regulations. Calibration of measuring instruments was introduced by the Law "On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements"; this term means "a set of operations performed to determine and confirm the actual values of metrological characteristics and (or) suitability for use of a measuring instrument that is not subject to state metrological control and supervision." The results of the calibration of measuring instruments are certified by a calibration mark applied to the measuring instruments, or by a calibration certificate, in which the actual values of the metrological characteristics are indicated without fail, as well as by a record in operational documents. 52. GENERAL MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES For accurate measurements of quantities in metrology, methods have been developed for using the principles and means of measurement. The easiest to implement method of direct assessment, consisting in determining the quantity directly from the reading device of a direct measuring instrument, for example, weighing on a dial balance, determining the size of a part using a micrometer, or measuring pressure with a spring pressure gauge. Measurements using this method are carried out very quickly, simply and do not require high qualification of the operator, since it is not necessary to create special measuring installations and perform any complex calculations. Measure comparison method, which consists in the fact that the measured value and the value reproduced by the measure simultaneously act on the measuring instrument of comparison, with the help of which the relationship between them is established, is called the method of opposition. The use of the opposition method can significantly reduce the impact on the measurement results of influencing quantities, since they more or less equally distort the signals of measurement information both in the conversion circuit of the measured quantity and in the conversion circuit of the quantity reproduced by the measure. The reading device of the comparator reacts to the signal difference, as a result of which these distortions compensate each other to some extent. A variation of the comparison method with a measure is also zero measurement method, which consists in the fact that by selecting the size of a reproducible measure of a quantity or by forcibly changing it, the effect of the compared quantities on the comparison device is brought to zero. In this case, the compensation of the effects of influencing quantities is more complete, and the value of the measured quantity is taken equal to the value of the measure. RџSЂRё differential measurement method a measuring device (not necessarily a comparison device) is supplied directly with the difference between the measured value and the value reproduced by the measure. The differential method is not applicable when measuring quantities such as temperature or hardness of bodies. Varieties of the method of comparison with a measure include substitution method, widely used in the practice of accurate metrological studies. The essence of the method is that the measured value is replaced in the measuring installation by some known value, a reproducible measure. One of the common measurement methods is match method, which is a kind of comparison method with a measure. When carrying out measurements by the coincidence method, the difference between the measured value and the value reproduced by the measure is measured using the coincidence of scale marks or periodic signals. Depending on the measurement method and the properties of the measuring instruments used, all types of measurements can be performed either with single or multiple observations. Observation during measurement is a single experimental operation, the result of which - the result of observation - always has a random character. It is one of the measured values that must be processed together in order to obtain a measurement result. The method of processing experimental data and the estimation of measurement errors depend on the number of observations. 53. SPECIAL MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES For accurate measurements of quantities in metrology, methods have been developed for using the principles and means of measurement, the use of which makes it possible to exclude a number of systematic errors from the measurement results and thereby frees the experimenter from the need to determine numerous corrections to compensate for them, and in some cases is generally a prerequisite for obtaining any reliable results. Many of these techniques are used when measuring only certain quantities, but there are some general techniques called measurement methods. When carrying out the most accurate measurements, preference is given to various modifications of the method of comparison with the measure, in which the measured value is found by comparison with the value reproduced by the measure. Within the framework of general measurement methods in metrological practice and in general instrumentation, special techniques are often used to eliminate the sources of systematic errors themselves or to compensate for them. Let's take a look at the most common of these methods. Parametric stabilization very widely used in critical measurements. This technique is used to maintain the temperature and humidity of the environment, supply voltage, etc., within the specified limits. from the influence of extraneous electric, magnetic, radiation and other fields. A way to compensate for constant and periodic errors in sign. When implementing this method, the measurement process is constructed in such a way that a constant systematic error enters the measurement result once with one sign, and another time with another. Then the average of the two results obtained is free from a constant error. Auxiliary measurement method used in cases where the influence of influencing quantities on the measurement results causes large measurement errors. Then they go to a deliberate complication of the measurement setup circuit, including elements in it that perceive the value of influencing quantities, automatically calculate the appropriate corrections and make them into useful signals that arrive at the reading or control devices. Currently, special measurement methods have found the greatest use, using equipment specially designed to measure parameters with specified metrological and operational characteristics (type of device, range of measured parameters, measurement error, preparation time for a second experiment, service life). For example, special methods for measuring speeds use two basic measurement principles: - measurement of the frequency shift of the signal reflected from the moving body relative to the frequency of the main signal (Doppler effect); - measurement of the time interval between the signals of the bullet flight sensors spaced apart by the value of the measuring base. Doppler velocity meters are complex and expensive measuring systems (such as the Ariel measuring complex), suitable for measuring velocities in the areas of internal and external ballistics. 54. METROLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Each measuring instrument has its own specific properties, which describe the characteristics, among which the main place is occupied by metrological characteristics. Knowledge of metrological characteristics is necessary for the choice of measuring instruments and for evaluating the accuracy of the measurement result. There are the following metrological characteristics of measuring instruments: - nominal static conversion characteristic (transformation function - functional relationship between the informative parameters of the output and input signal of the measuring instrument, it is also called the nominal conversion function of the measuring instrument); - sensitivity - the ratio of the increment of the output signal of the measuring instrument to the change in the input signal that caused this increment. With regard to measuring instruments - if their sensitivity is constant, then the scale of the instrument is uniform, i.e. the length of all divisions of the scale is the same; - measurement range - the range of values of the measured normalized quantity, for which the error of the measuring instrument is normalized. The measuring range is limited to the largest and smallest values. For measuring instruments, the range of values of the scale is limited by the initial and final values of the scale, called the range of indications. Can be divided into sub-ranges; - scale division price - the difference between the values of the quantity corresponding to two adjacent scale marks. For measuring instruments that express the measurement result in digital form, indicate the price of the unit of the least significant digit, the type of output code and the number of digits of the code; - to assess the influence of the measuring instrument on the operating mode of the object of study, the input impedance is normalized. When a measuring instrument is connected to a circuit, it consumes some power from this circuit, which can lead to a change in the circuit mode; - the permissible load on the measuring instrument and the error in the transmission of the measurement information signal depend on the output impedance; - the most important characteristic of a measuring instrument is the error that it introduces into the measurement result or, as they say, the error of the measuring instrument. The errors of measuring instruments depend on external conditions, so they are usually divided into basic and additional. The main one is the error under conditions taken as normal for a given measuring instrument. Additional error - occurs when the measured value deviates from normal values; - dynamic characteristics of measuring instruments - characteristics of inertial properties. Means that determine the dependence of the output signal of the measuring instrument on time-varying values: parameters of the input signal, external influencing quantities, loads, etc. Depending on the completeness of the description of the dynamic properties of the measuring instruments, full, partial dynamic characteristics are distinguished. The full dynamic characteristics include the transient response, amplitude-phase, amplitude-frequency, transfer function, etc. For measuring instruments, the reaction time, the time to set the readings, i.e., the time from the moment of an abrupt change in the measured value to the moment of establishment with a certain indication error. 55. TRUE VALUES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENT RESULTS When analyzing measurements, two concepts should be clearly distinguished: the true values of physical quantities and their empirical manifestations - the results of measurements. True values of physical quantities - these are values that ideally reflect the properties of a given object, both quantitatively and qualitatively. They do not depend on the means of our knowledge and are absolute truth. Measurement results are approximate estimates of the values of quantities found by measurement, they depend on the method of measurement, on the technical means by which the measurements are carried out, and on the properties of the senses of the observer who makes the measurements. The difference A between the measurement results X and the true value Q of the measured quantity is called the measurement error: A \uXNUMXd X-Q. The reasons for the occurrence of errors are: the imperfection of measurement methods, technical means used in measurements, and the observer's senses. The reasons associated with the influence of the measurement conditions should be combined into a separate group. The latter appear in two ways. On the one hand, all physical quantities that play any role in measurements depend on each other to one degree or another. Therefore, with a change in external conditions, the true values of the measured quantities change. On the other hand, the measurement conditions also affect the characteristics of the measuring instruments and the physiological properties of the observer's sense organs and through them become a source of measurement errors. The causes of errors are determined by a combination of a large number of factors. They can be grouped into two main groups: - random (including gross errors and misses) that change randomly during repeated measurements of the same value; - systematic errors that remain constant or regularly change during repeated measurements. During the measurement process, both types of errors appear simultaneously, and the measurement error can be represented as a sum: A \u6d 6 + 6, where 6 is random, and XNUMX is systematic error. To obtain results that differ minimally from the true values of the quantities, multiple observations of the measured quantity are carried out, followed by mathematical processing of the experimental data. Therefore, the study of the error as a function of the observation number, i.e., the time A(f), is of the greatest importance. Then the individual error values can be interpreted as a set of values of this function: A1 = A(f1), A2 = A(f2),...An = A(fn). In the general case, the error is a random function of time, which differs from the classical functions of mathematical analysis in that it is impossible to say what value it will take at time t. You can only specify the probabilities of the occurrence of its values in a particular interval. In a series of experiments consisting of a number of multiple observations, we get one implementation of this function. When repeating the series with the same values of the quantities characterizing the factors of the second group, we inevitably obtain a new realization that differs from the first. 56. SYSTEMATIC ERROR AND ITS TYPES A systematic error is a component of the measurement error that remains constant or regularly changes during repeated measurements of the same value. The improvement of measurement methods, the use of high-quality materials, advanced technology - all this makes it possible in practice to eliminate systematic errors to such an extent that when processing the results of observations, their presence often does not have to be taken into account. Systematic errors are usually classified depending on the causes of their occurrence and the nature of their manifestation during measurements. Depending on the causes of occurrence, four types of systematic errors are considered. Method errors - theoretical errors arising from the fallacy or insufficient development of the accepted theory of the measurement method as a whole or from the simplifications made during measurements. Method errors also arise when extrapolating a property measured on a limited part of an object to the entire object, if the latter does not have the homogeneity of the measured property. When determining the density of a substance by measuring the mass and volume of a certain sample, a systematic error occurs if the sample contained a certain amount of impurities, and the measurement result is taken as a characteristic of this substance in general. The errors of the method should also include those errors that arise due to the influence of measuring equipment on the measured properties of the object. Similar phenomena occur, for example, when measuring lengths, when the measuring force of the instruments used is large enough, when registering fast processes, insufficiently fast equipment, when measuring temperatures with liquid or gas thermometers, etc. instrumental errors, depending on the errors of the measuring instruments used. Among the instrumental errors, a separate group includes circuit errors that are not associated with inaccuracies in the manufacture of measuring instruments and owe their origin to the very structural scheme of measuring instruments. The study of instrumental errors is the subject of a special discipline - the theory of accuracy of measuring devices. Errors due to incorrect installation and relative position of measuring instruments, being part of a single complex, the inconsistency of their characteristics, the influence of external temperature, gravitational, radiation and other fields, the instability of power sources, the inconsistency of the input and output parameters of electrical circuits of devices, etc. personal mistakes, determined by the individual characteristics of the observer. Such errors are caused, for example, by a delay or advance in signal registration, incorrect reading of tenths of a scale division, and asymmetry that occurs when a stroke is set in the middle between two risks. According to the nature of their behavior in the measurement process, systematic errors are divided into constant and variable. 57. CONSTANT AND VARIABLE SYSTEMATIC ERRORS Permanent systematic errors arise, for example, when the origin is incorrectly set, the calibration and adjustment of measuring instruments are incorrect and remain constant during all repeated observations. Therefore, if they have already arisen, they are very difficult to detect in the results of observations. Among variable systematic errors It is customary to single out progressive and periodic. Progressive error occurs, for example, when weighing, when one of the balance beams is closer to the heat source than the other, therefore it heats up faster and lengthens. This leads to a systematic shift of the reference point and to a monotonous change in the readings of the scales. Periodic error inherent in measuring instruments with a circular scale, if the axis of rotation of the pointer does not coincide with the axis of the scale. All other types of systematic errors are usually called errors that change according to a complex law. In those cases when, when creating the measuring instruments necessary for a given measuring installation, it is not possible to eliminate the influence of systematic errors, it is necessary to specially organize the measuring process and carry out mathematical processing of the results. Methods for dealing with systematic errors are their detection and subsequent exclusion by full or partial compensation. The main difficulties, often insurmountable, lie precisely in the detection of systematic errors, so sometimes one has to be content with an approximate analysis of them. Constant systematic errors do not affect the values of random deviations of the observation results from the arithmetic mean, therefore, no mathematical processing of the observation results can lead to their detection. The analysis of such errors is possible only on the basis of some a priori knowledge about these errors, obtained, for example, when checking measuring instruments. The measured value during verification is usually reproduced by an exemplary measure, the actual value of which is known. Therefore, the difference between the arithmetic mean of the observation results and the value of the measure with an accuracy determined by the error of the measure certification and random measurement errors is equal to the desired systematic error. To correct the results of observations, they are added with corrections equal to the systematic errors in magnitude and reciprocal in sign. The correction is determined experimentally when checking instruments or as a result of special studies, usually with some limited accuracy. The systematic error remaining after the introduction of corrections for its most significant components includes a number of elementary components, called the non-excluded residuals of the systematic error. These include: - errors in determining the corrections; - errors depending on the measurement accuracy of the influencing quantities included in the formulas for determining the corrections; - errors associated with fluctuations in influencing quantities (ambient temperature, supply voltage, etc.). The listed errors are small and no corrections are made for them. 58. REGULATORY BASIS OF THE STATE SYSTEM OF ENSURING THE UNITY OF MEASUREMENTS All metrological activity in the Russian Federation is based on a constitutional norm that establishes that standards, standards, the metric system and timekeeping are in federal jurisdiction, and establishes centralized management of the main issues of legal metrology, such as PV units, standards and other related metrological basics. In the development of this constitutional norm, the laws "On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements" and "On Technical Regulation" were adopted, detailing the foundations of metrological activity. The main objectives of the Law "On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements" are: - establishment of the legal basis for ensuring the uniformity of measurements in the Russian Federation; - regulation of relations between state authorities and legal entities and individuals on the issues of manufacture, production, operation, repair, sale and import of measuring instruments; - protection of the rights and legitimate interests of citizens, the established legal order and the Russian economy from the negative consequences of unreliable measurement results; - promotion of progress through the creation and application of state standards of PV units; - harmonization of the Russian measurement system with world practice. Unity of measurements - the state of the measurement process, in which the results of all measurements are expressed in the same legal units of measurement and the assessment of their accuracy is provided with a guaranteed confidence level. To achieve the uniformity of measurements, it is necessary to ensure the uniformity of measuring instruments, i.e. such a state of measuring instruments when they are graduated in legal units of measurement, and their metrological properties comply with the standards. The unity of measurements is achieved by accurate reproduction, storage of established units of physical quantities and transfer of their sizes to all working measuring instruments using standards and exemplary measuring instruments. The highest link in the metrological chain of transferring the sizes of units of measurement are standards. The technical basis of the CSI is the state standard base of Russia. The reference base of Russia consists of 1176 state primary and special standards. The main principles for ensuring the uniformity of measurements are: - the use of only legalized units of physical quantities; - reproduction of physical quantities using state standards; - the use of legalized measuring instruments that have passed state tests and to which the sizes of units of physical quantities from state standards have been transferred; - obligatory periodic control at established intervals of the characteristics of the measuring instruments used; - a guarantee of ensuring the necessary accuracy of measurements when using verified measuring instruments and certified methods for performing measurements; - the use of measurement results only if their error is estimated with a given probability; - systematic control over observance of metrological rules and norms, state supervision and departmental control over measuring instruments. 59. ORDER OF TRANSFER OF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE UNIT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITY IN THE RF The basis for ensuring the uniformity of measuring instruments is the system of transferring the size of the unit of the measured quantity. Transfer of unit size - reduction of the size of a physical quantity stored by a verification measuring instrument to the size of a unit reproduced or stored by a standard or exemplary measuring instrument, carried out during their comparison (verification). At present, a multistage procedure has been established for transferring the dimensions of a unit of a physical quantity from the state standard to all working measuring instruments of a given physical quantity using secondary standards and exemplary measuring instruments of various categories from the highest first to the lowest and from exemplary measuring instruments to working measuring instruments. The transfer of the size through each stage is accompanied by a loss of accuracy, however, multi-stage allows you to save standards and transfer the size of the unit to all working measuring instruments. Exemplary measuring instruments, as is known, are used for periodic transmission of unit sizes in the process of checking measuring instruments and are operated only in subdivisions of the metrological service. The main tasks of metrological support are: - analysis of the state of measurements, development and implementation of measures to improve metrological support at the enterprise; - establishment of a rational nomenclature of measured parameters and optimal standards for measurement accuracy, the introduction of modern methods for performing measurements, testing and control; - introduction of standards regulating the norms of measurement accuracy; - carrying out metrological examination of normative-technical, design and technological documentation; - verification and metrological certification of measuring instruments; - control over the production, condition, use and repair of measuring instruments. Responsibility for the condition and use of measuring instruments at enterprises is borne by the engineers operating these instruments, and at the enterprise (in the organization) - by the head of the enterprise (organization). To reproduce, store and transmit the size of units of various quantities using special standard measures, special metrological institutions have been created in some countries. In Russia, such an institution was the Depot of Exemplary Weights and Measures established in 1842. Currently, the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology manages: - State service of time and frequency and determination of the parameters of the Earth's rotation; - State Service of Reference Materials for the Composition and Properties of Substances and Materials; - State Service for Standard Reference Data on Physical Constants and Properties of Substances and Materials. The Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology exercises state metrological control and supervision. It is in charge of the State Metrological Service, which includes state scientific metrological centers (metrological research institutes) and bodies of the State Metrological Service in the territories of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation - territorial centers of certification and metrology. 60. PROCEDURE FOR VERIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. VERIFICATION SCHEMES Reliable transfer of the size of units in all links of the metrological chain from standards or from the original exemplary measuring instrument to working measuring instruments is carried out in a certain order, given in the verification schemes. Verification scheme - this is a duly approved document regulating the means, methods and accuracy of transferring the size of a unit of physical quantity from the state standard or the original exemplary measuring instrument to working means. There are state, departmental and local verification schemes of bodies of state or departmental metrological services. State verification the scheme applies to all means of measuring a given physical quantity used in the country, for example, to means of measuring electrical voltage in a certain frequency range. Departmental verification scheme is developed by the body of the departmental metrological service, agreed with the main center of standards - the developer of the state verification scheme for measuring instruments of a given physical quantity and applies only to measuring instruments subject to internal verification. Local verification schemes apply to working measuring instruments subject to verification in a given metrological unit at an enterprise that has the right to verify measuring instruments, and are drawn up in the form of an organization standard. Departmental and local verification schemes should not contradict the state ones and should take into account their requirements in relation to the specifics of a particular ministry or enterprise. The term "verification" was introduced by GOST "GSI. Metrology. Terms and definitions" as a definition by the metrological authority of the errors of a measuring instrument and the establishment of its suitability for use. Measuring instruments produced from production and repair, received from abroad, as well as those in operation and storage are subject to verification. Those measuring instruments are recognized as suitable for use during a certain calibration interval of time, the verification of which confirms their compliance with the metrological and technical requirements for this measuring instrument. Primary verification Measuring instruments are subjected when they are released from production or repair, as well as measuring instruments that are imported. Periodic verification measuring instruments that are in operation or in storage are subject to certain calibration intervals established with the calculation of ensuring the suitability for use of measuring instruments for the period between calibrations. Inspection verification produced to determine the suitability for the use of measuring instruments in the implementation of state supervision and departmental metrological control over the state and use of measuring instruments. Expert verification perform in the event of disputes regarding metrological characteristics, serviceability of measuring instruments and their suitability for use. Metrological certification - this is a set of measures to study the metrological characteristics and properties of a measuring instrument in order to decide on the suitability of its use as an exemplary one. 61. STATE TESTING OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. ACCEPTANCE AND CHECK TESTS To solve the problem of ensuring the reliability of verification, sets of rules have been created that regulate the procedure for preparing, performing and processing measurement results, as well as a reference base and a set of exemplary measuring instruments. All measuring instruments intended for mass production, import from abroad, are subject to mandatory state tests by the State Metrological Service, which means an examination of technical documentation for measuring instruments and their experimental studies to determine the degree of compliance with established standards, the needs of the national economy and the modern level of development of instrumentation, as well as the feasibility of their production. There are two types of state tests: - acceptance testing of prototypes of new types of measuring instruments scheduled for serial production or import into the Russian Federation (state acceptance tests); - control tests of samples from the installation series and mass-produced measuring instruments (state control tests). State acceptance tests are carried out by special state commissions, consisting of representatives of metrological institutes, development organizations, manufacturers and customers. In the process of state acceptance testing of prototypes of measuring instruments, the compliance of the measuring instrument with the modern technical level, as well as with the requirements of the technical assignment, draft specifications and state standards is checked. The normalized metrological characteristics and the possibility of their control during production, after repair and during operation, the possibility of verification and maintainability of the tested measuring instruments are also subject to verification. The State Acceptance Commission, based on the study and analysis of the samples of measuring instruments and technical documentation submitted for testing, makes a recommendation on the expediency (or inexpediency) of producing a measuring instrument of this type. The State Metrological Service reviews the materials of state tests and decides on the approval of the type of measuring instruments for release into circulation in the country. After approval, the type of measuring instruments is entered into the State Register of measuring instruments. State control tests are carried out by the territorial Centers for Standardization and Metrology. Their purpose is to check the compliance of measuring instruments manufactured or imported from abroad with the requirements of standards and specifications. Control tests are carried out periodically during the entire time of production (or import) of measuring instruments of this type at the testing base of the manufacturer. Upon completion of the tests, an act on control tests is drawn up containing the test results, comments, suggestions and conclusions. Based on the act of control tests, the organization that conducted them decides to allow the continuation of the release into circulation of these measuring instruments, or to eliminate the shortcomings found during the control tests, or to prohibit their release into circulation. 62. METROLOGICAL SUPPLY OF THE ENTERPRISE Metrological support - this is the establishment and application of scientific and organizational foundations, technical means, rules and norms necessary to achieve unity and the required accuracy of measurements. Thus, metrological support has a scientific, technical and organizational basis. The scientific basis of metrological support is metrology. The technical basis of metrological support is the following systems: - The system of state standards of units of physical quantities, ensuring the reproduction of units with the highest accuracy; - The system for transferring the sizes of units of physical quantities from standards to all measuring instruments; - A system for the development, production and release into circulation of working measuring instruments that ensure the determination with the required accuracy of the characteristics of products, technological processes and other objects; - The system of mandatory state testing of measuring instruments intended for serial or mass production; - The system of mandatory state and departmental verification or metrological certification of measuring instruments, ensuring the uniformity of measuring instruments during their manufacture, operation and repair; - A system of standard reference data on physical constants and properties of substances and materials, providing reliable data for scientific research, development of product designs and technological processes for their manufacture, etc.; - System for the development, standardization and certification of measurement methods. Metrological supervision of measuring instruments is the activity of the bodies of the metrological service aimed at ensuring the uniformity of measuring instruments. The main forms of metrological supervision of measuring instruments in circulation are verification, metrological revision and metrological examination of measuring instruments. At industrial enterprises, where the main use of measuring instruments is carried out, the main responsibility for organizing the metrological support of production lies with the metrological service of the enterprise. Metrological support of the enterprise mainly includes: - analysis of the state of measurements; - establishment of a rational nomenclature of measured quantities and the use of measuring instruments (working and reference) of appropriate accuracy; - verification and calibration of measuring instruments; - development of methods for performing measurements to ensure the established standards of accuracy; - carrying out metrological examination of design and technological documentation; - introduction of the necessary regulatory documents (state, industry, company); - accreditation for technical competence; - carrying out metrological supervision. In modern conditions of market relations, the measuring instruments used as part of the fixed assets should ensure the optimization of the management of technological processes and the enterprise as a whole, stabilize processes, and maintain the quality of product manufacturing. 63. PROCEDURE FOR ACCREDITATION OF METROLOGICAL SERVICES According to the Law "On Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements", by decision of the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology, the right to verify measuring equipment can be granted to accredited services of legal entities. The procedure for accreditation is determined by the Government of the Russian Federation. A legal entity (applicant enterprise) interested in the accreditation of the metrological service sends an application for accreditation to the accrediting organization. The application must contain a description of the scope of accreditation: types or areas of measurements, the methods of implementation of which are certified by the metrological service of the enterprise (organization); purpose and (or) scope of certified methods; types of documents, the metrological examination of which is carried out by the metrological service, their purpose (scope). Attached to the application: - regulations on the metrological service of a legal entity (enterprise, organization), approved in the prescribed manner (sections 1 and 7 of PR 50732-93 (3)); - enterprise standards regulating the activities of the metrological service in the declared scope of accreditation; - passport of the metrological support of the enterprise (organization). Based on the consideration of the application, the accrediting organization sends to the applicant enterprise a draft contract for the accreditation of the metrological service, in which the conditions and procedure for accreditation should be determined. The accrediting organization entrusts the work on accreditation of metrological services of legal entities in accordance with the rules only to specialists who have experience in certification of measurement methods and in carrying out metrological examination of design, design and technological documentation and (or) certified as experts in the relevant fields of activity. The accreditation procedure consists in the fact that a commission is appointed, which, as a rule, includes representatives of research institutes for this type of measurement and (or) representatives of the regional center for standardization and metrology. The Accreditation Commission considers and resolves issues in the following main areas: - establishing the principles of a unified technical policy in the field of accreditation; - research of new technologies in this area; - coordination of activities of accreditation bodies; - economic problems; - international cooperation; - periodic summing up of the results of accreditation work; - maintaining a register of accredited facilities and accreditation experts. Accreditation, like certification, is carried out in legally regulated and non-regulated areas. The commission gets acquainted with the availability and performance of exemplary instruments, with the availability of measurement methods, with the operating conditions of exemplary instruments, with the level of qualification of the service personnel. Then, using any means of ensuring the uniformity of measurements, control measurements are carried out. On the basis of a positive assessment of these points, the commission petitions the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology for accreditation of the metrological service of a legal entity for the right to verify measuring equipment. 64. CALIBRATION ACTIVITIES OF ACCREDITED METROLOGICAL SERVICES Metrological services of legal entities can control the correctness of the readings of measuring equipment that is not subject to verification. In this case, the control results are called the calibration of the measuring instrument. The results of calibration of measuring instruments are certified by a calibration mark or calibration certificate, as well as an entry in operational documents. The list of measuring instruments that are not subject to verification, for which the calibration procedure is allowed, is approved by the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology. Calibration results can serve as an argument in resolving disputes in court, in an arbitration court, and in government bodies of the Russian Federation. Calibration activities of accredited metrological services of legal entities are controlled by state scientific metrological centers or territorial centers of standardization and metrology. Calibration is voluntary, but this does not exempt the legal entity conducting calibration work from using measuring instruments subordinate to exemplary measuring instruments or state standards. The laboratory that calibrates the measuring instrument at the request of the customer does not make a conclusion about the suitability of the instrument. The established characteristics may differ from the passport ones, and it depends only on the customer under what conditions and for what purposes this measuring instrument will be used. In other cases, when the customer requires the determination and confirmation of the suitability of a measuring instrument for use, the latter is recognized as suitable if the actual values of its metrological characteristics comply with the technical requirements established in the regulatory documentation or by the customer. The calibration laboratory in this case makes a conclusion about the suitability of the measuring instrument, and this conclusion has a legal status. To determine the role of the metrological service in the quality system of an enterprise, it is necessary to present its activities in the modern concept of total quality management. In order for the activity of the metrological service of the enterprise to fully meet the requirements of state and international standards for the procedures for managing control, measuring and testing equipment, it is necessary to develop and maintain a quality system of the metrological service within the quality system of the enterprise, which would document the main procedures for performing certain types of activities for metrological providing measurements. The requirements for the measuring instruments used for quality control and testing of products, the procedure for their certification and verification, methods for performing measurements, and other metrological rules comply with the standards and regulatory documentation of the State System for Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements. The organization should develop a list of all used measuring instruments, control and test equipment. The list indicates the measuring instruments to be verified and calibrated. 65. ESSENCE AND CONTENT OF CERTIFICATION The term "certification" in Latin means "done right". e. Compliance confirmed. In essence, any conformity assessment is certification, all our activities are reduced to its three interrelated types: ordering and definition (standardization), control and measurement (metrology) and confirmation of results (certification). A document confirming the compliance of a certified product or service with established requirements is called certificate of conformity. The assessment of product quality and the certification procedure is carried out by an independent, competent organization, such as a testing laboratory. To confirm its competence and objectivity, this organization must periodically undergo an accreditation procedure, i.e., official recognition of its ability to carry out the appropriate type of control or testing. Certification is based on standards and is based on tests against certification standards. Let's define the basic terms and concepts of certification. Systematic verification of the degree of compliance with specified requirements is commonly called conformity assessment. A more particular concept of conformity assessment is control, which is considered as conformity assessment by measuring specific product characteristics. Related to conformity assessment are verification of conformity, supervision of conformity, and assurance of conformity. Compliance check - this is a confirmation of the conformity of a product (process, service) with the established requirements through the study of evidence. Confirmation of compliance - this is a documentary evidence of the compliance of products or other objects, processes of production, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, performance of work or provision of services with the requirements of technical regulations, the provisions of standards or the terms of the contract. Compliance oversight - this is a re-evaluation to make sure that the product (process, service) continues to meet the established requirements. Ensuring Compliance - a procedure, the result of which is a statement that gives confidence that the product (process, service) meets the specified requirements. For products, this could be: — the supplier's declaration of conformity, i.e. his written assurance that the product conforms to specified requirements; a statement that may be printed on a catalogue, delivery note, instruction manual or other communication relating to the product; it can also be a label, label, etc.; - certification - a procedure by which a third party gives a written guarantee that a product, process, service meets specified requirements. The term "supplier's declaration of conformity" means that the supplier (manufacturer), under his sole responsibility, declares that his product meets the requirements of a specific regulatory document. According to ISO/IEC Guide 2, this is evidence of the manufacturer's conscious responsibility and the willingness of the consumer to make a thoughtful and specific order. 66. OBJECTIVES AND PRINCIPLES OF CERTIFICATION IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION In accordance with the provisions of the Law "On Technical Regulation", conformity assessment is aimed at achieving the following goals: - certification of compliance of products, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, works, services or other objects with technical regulations, standards, terms of contracts; - assistance to purchasers in the competent choice of products, works, services; - increasing the competitiveness of products, works, services in the Russian and international markets; - creation of conditions for ensuring the free movement of goods across the territory of the Russian Federation, as well as for the implementation of international economic, scientific and technical cooperation and international trade; - ensuring commercial secrets in relation to information obtained in the course of conformity assessment. Certification in Russia is carried out on the following principles: - voluntariness; - non-discriminatory access to participation in certification processes; - objectivity of assessments; - reproducibility of assessment results; - confidentiality; - informativeness; - specialization of certification bodies; - mandatory verification of compliance with the requirements for products (services) in the legally regulated area; - reliability of evidence from the applicant's side of the compliance of the quality system with regulatory requirements. The principle of voluntariness is based on the provision that certification is carried out only at the initiative of the applicant and in the presence of a written application, unless otherwise provided by legislative acts. All organizations that have applied for certification and recognize the established principles, requirements and rules are allowed to be certified in the Russian Federation. In addition, any discrimination of the applicant and any participant in the certification process is excluded, whether it is a price that is too high in comparison with other applicants, an unjustified delay in terms, an unreasonable refusal to accept an application, etc. The objectivity of assessments is ensured, firstly, by the independence of the certification body and the experts involved by it from applicants or other organizations interested in the results of assessment and certification; secondly, the completeness of the composition of the commission of experts; thirdly, the competence of the experts conducting the certification, certified in the prescribed manner. To ensure the reproducibility of the assessment results, the rules and procedures for verification based on uniform requirements are applied, the assessment is carried out on the basis of actual data, the assessment results are documented and stored. Procedures, rules, tests and other actions that can be considered as components of the certification process itself may be different depending on the characteristics of the object of certification, which, in turn, determines the choice of test method, etc. In other words, conformity assessment is carried out according to one or another system of certification. According to international ISO/IEC standards, it is a system that certifies according to its own rules, both in terms of procedure and management. 67. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CERTIFICATE OF CONFORMITY AND CONFORMITY MARKS Any certification system uses standards (international, regional, national), for compliance with the requirements of which tests are carried out. Third party certification systems use two ways to indicate compliance with standards: a certificate of conformity and a mark of conformity, which are ways of informing all interested parties about the certified product. Certificate of conformity is a document issued according to the rules of a certification system that states that the necessary assurance is provided that a properly identified product (process, service) complies with a specific standard or other normative document. The certificate may refer to all the requirements of the standard, as well as individual sections or specific characteristics of the product, which is clearly stated in the document itself. The information provided in the certificate must be able to be compared with the test results on the basis of which it was issued. Mark of conformity is a duly protected mark used in accordance with the rules of the certification system, indicating that the necessary confidence is provided that a given product (process, service) complies with a specific standard or other regulatory document. Typically, certification systems have rules for the use of the mark of conformity or national standards governing the use of the mark of conformity to the state standard. Permission (license) to use the conformity mark is issued by the certification body. If a product is certified for safety, then it can be marked with special conformity marks, which either relate to specific types of products, such as electrical household appliances, or are more general, i.e., inform the consumer about the safety of many types of goods. The procedure for maintaining a unified register of issued certificates of conformity has been established in the Russian Federation. Information about certificates of conformity is entered into the unified register in the form of an entry containing: - name and location of the applicant; - name and location of the product manufacturer; - name and location of the certification body that issued the certificate of conformity; - surname, name, patronymic of the head of the certification body; - information about the object of certification, allowing it to be identified; - information on technical regulations for compliance with the requirements of which certification was carried out; - information about the documents submitted by the applicant to the certification body as evidence of product compliance with the requirements of technical regulations; - information about the conducted studies (tests) and measurements; - registration number of the issued certificate of conformity, date of its issue and registration with the certification body, validity period, registration number of the form on which the issued certificate of conformity is issued; - the date and reason for the suspension or termination of the issued certificate of conformity. 68. SCOPE OF CERTIFICATION. MANDATORY AND VOLUNTARY CERTIFICATION Certification can be mandatory or voluntary. Mandatory certification is carried out on the basis of laws and legislative provisions and provides evidence of the conformity of the product (process, service) with the requirements of technical regulations. Compulsory certification systems are being created to implement mandatory certification. The nomenclature of objects of obligatory certification is established at the state level of management. Voluntary certification is carried out at the initiative of legal entities or individuals on contractual terms between the applicant and the certification body in voluntary certification systems. It is allowed to carry out voluntary certification in the systems of mandatory certification by bodies for mandatory certification. The normative document, for compliance with which tests are carried out during voluntary certification, is chosen, as a rule, by the applicant. The decision on voluntary certification is usually associated with the problems of the competitiveness of the goods, the promotion of goods on the market (especially foreign); preferences of buyers, who are increasingly guided in their choice by certified products. To ensure the reproducibility of the assessment results, the rules and procedures for verification based on uniform requirements are applied, the assessment is carried out on the basis of actual data, the assessment results are documented and stored. The confidentiality of all information about the organization at all stages of certification and according to its results, characterizing the state of the quality system (production) and the compliance of personnel, is ensured by the management of the certification body, both in terms of staff and personnel involved in certification work. Information constituting an official or commercial secret is protected by the methods provided for by the Civil Code of the Russian Federation and other laws. In the event that the products (services) produced by the enterprise, as well as the production conditions, may threaten the health of consumers and pose a danger to the environment, the principle of confidentiality of information is not respected. The specialization of bodies for the certification of quality systems (industries) is achieved both by the scope of accreditation of the body, and by the presence in its staff or among the involved personnel of experts and consultants specialized in the relevant field of activity. Participation in certification systems can be in three forms: - admission to the certification system; - participation in the certification system; - membership in the certification system. Admission to the certification system means the possibility for the applicant to carry out certification in accordance with the rules of this system. Participation and membership in the certification system is established at the level of the certification body. A certification system participant is a certification body that applies the rules of this system in its activities, but does not have the right to participate in the management of the system. 69. QUALITY SYSTEM CERTIFICATION AND ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF CERTIFICATION WORK Certification is designed to promote the development of international trade. However, the certification system can be a technical barrier. In Russia, certification of both imported and domestic goods is carried out according to the same rules. However, the approach to mandatory and voluntary certification in our country and, for example, in the West is very different. In the conditions of fierce competition and an excess of goods on the market, its presence has become an indispensable requirement for ensuring sales and sales of products. In Russia, on the contrary, the volume of distribution of products of low grade and even dangerous to human health has sharply increased. In this regard, the solution of one of the main problems of the Russian economy lies in the field of expanding the scope of introduction of mandatory certification. Every year the world is rapidly increasing the number of enterprises that successfully certify their quality systems for compliance with ISO 9000 series standards. This is facilitated by internal reasons that accelerate the implementation and certification of these systems. In our country, the certification of the quality system for compliance with ISO 9000 series standards until recently was carried out on a voluntary basis. Domestic organizations that certify quality systems are not recognized abroad. Therefore, Russian enterprises wishing to have an appropriate level of document on certification of their quality system turn to foreign companies working in this area. In this regard, the Federal Agency for Standardization and Metrology of Russia pays considerable attention to the following issues: - streamlining the certification of quality systems carried out as part of the work on certification of quality systems; - revitalization of activities for the certification of quality systems itself; - harmonization of Russian requirements for certification of quality systems with international norms and rules. The fulfillment of the latter requirement will create the necessary conditions for the recognition of domestic certificates for quality systems abroad, will make it possible for Russian certification systems to enter international unions and agreements, which, in turn, will accelerate the process of international integration in this area. Economic assessments of work on certification. When paying for certification works, they are guided by the following principles: - payment for the entire list of actually performed certification works is carried out at the expense of enterprises, organizations and individuals who have submitted an application for their implementation, regardless of the decision taken by the certification body (the only exception is the financing of works carried out in accordance with the law, from the state budget ); - profitability of works on obligatory certification should not exceed the level of 35%; - the list of works on the implementation of inspection control over products and services subject to mandatory certification is made in the amount of actually incurred costs by organizations performing this type of work; - part of the profit remaining on the accounts of certification bodies and testing laboratories (centers) from carrying out work on mandatory certification should be directed to the improvement and development of the regulatory, technical and testing base, go to the organization and conduct of the personnel training process. 70. RULES OF CERTIFICATION IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION. CERTIFICATION SCHEMES In accordance with the Law "On Technical Regulation", the rules for conducting and conformity assessment schemes are established exclusively in technical regulations and cannot be adjusted in the process of interaction between the certification body and the applicant. This circumstance presents certain difficulties for developers, who must take into account all the features of future products. Certification schemes are a specific set of actions that officially confirms the conformity of products to specified requirements. Certification is carried out in accordance with the schemes, which are determined by certification systems for homogeneous products. Confirmation of conformity of products to the requirements of technical regulations within the established form of mandatory conformity assessment is carried out in accordance with the schemes of mandatory conformity assessment. Schemes may include one or more operations, the results of which are necessary to confirm the conformity of products to established standards, namely: - tests (standard samples, batches and units of production); - certification of the quality system (at the stages of design and production, only production or during final control and testing); - inspection control. The following certification schemes exist. 1. An accredited testing laboratory tests a typical product sample. An accredited certification body issues a certificate of conformity to the applicant. 2. An accredited testing laboratory tests a typical product sample. An accredited certification body analyzes the state of production and issues a certificate of conformity to the applicant. 3. An accredited testing laboratory tests a typical product sample. An accredited certification body issues a certificate of conformity to the applicant and carries out inspection control over certified products (testing product samples). 4. An accredited testing laboratory tests a typical product sample. An accredited certification body analyzes the state of production, issues a certificate of conformity to the applicant and exercises inspection control over certified products (testing product samples and analyzing the state of production). 5. An accredited testing laboratory tests a typical product sample. An accredited certification body certifies the quality system or production, issues a certificate of conformity to the applicant and exercises inspection control over the certified products (control of the quality system (production), testing of product samples taken from the manufacturer or seller). 6. An accredited testing laboratory tests a batch of products. An accredited certification body issues a certificate of conformity to the applicant. 7. An accredited testing laboratory tests each product unit. An accredited certification body issues a certificate of conformity to the applicant. 71. DECLARATION SCHEMES In order to create favorable conditions for the mutual recognition of conformity assessment results, it is effective to apply a European directive and use a scheme close to the conformity assessment procedures established in this directive. It should be noted that in the European Union a similar set with a detailed description is contained in the EU Council Decision 993\465\EEC "On the modules of the various phases of the conformity assessment procedures and the rules for applying and applying the CE marking". Please note that this document uses the only form of mandatory confirmation of conformity - declaration of conformity. There are the following schemes certification and declaration. 1. The applicant provides his own evidence of compliance in the technical file and accepts a declaration of conformity. 2. An accredited testing laboratory tests a typical product sample. The applicant accepts the declaration of conformity. 3. The certification body certifies the quality system at the production stage. An accredited testing laboratory conducts tests of a typical product sample. The applicant accepts the declaration of conformity. The certification body exercises inspection control over the quality system. 4. The certification body certifies the quality system at the stages of control and testing. An accredited testing laboratory conducts tests of a typical product sample. The applicant accepts the declaration of conformity. The certification body exercises inspection control over the quality system. 5. An accredited testing laboratory conducts selective tests of a batch of manufactured products. The applicant accepts the declaration of conformity. 6. An accredited testing laboratory tests each product unit. The applicant accepts the declaration of conformity. 7. The certification body certifies the quality system at the stages of design and production. The applicant tests a product sample and accepts a declaration of conformity. 8. The certification body carries out inspection control over the quality system. The establishment of declaration schemes is recommended to be carried out by expert methods in the following sequence: - choice of a specific scheme; - detailing individual operations within the framework of the selected schemes, taking into account the specifics of products, the characteristics of the consumption sector. The choice of schemes is carried out taking into account the total risk from an unreliable conformity assessment and damage from the use of products that have passed conformity assessment. At the same time, the objectivity of the assessment, characterized by the degree of independence of the performers of the operation (the first or third party), is also taken into account. When choosing schemes, the following main factors are taken into account: - degree of potential danger of products; - sensitivity of safety indicators regulated by the technical regulations to changes in production and (or) operational factors; - the degree of complexity of the design (project) (determined by the expert method by the developers of the technical regulation); - availability of other conformity assessment mechanisms (for example, state control (supervision)) in relation to the declared products. 72. FUNCTIONS OF THE CERTIFICATION BODY The main tasks of the certification body are the certification of products according to the requirements of information security in the declared area of accreditation, control and supervision of products certified by this body and the activities of testing centers (laboratories) for certification. The certification body carries out the following functions: - certifies products, issues certificates and licenses for the use of the mark of conformity, registers them in the state register of the system; - participates in the accreditation of testing centers (laboratories); - carries out inspection control over the stability of the characteristics of certified products and the state of their production, as well as supervision over the activities of testing centers (laboratories); - together with state bodies for certification and attestation and territorial bodies of Rostekhregulirovanie, takes part in the certification of production, which produces certified products; - determines the scheme for certification of specific products, taking into account the proposal of the applicant; - recommends to the applicant a testing center (laboratory) for testing; - suspends or cancels the certificates issued by him in case of violation by the manufacturer of the requirements of standards and other regulatory and methodological documents on information security; forms a fund of documents required for certification, participates in their development; - develops and maintains methodological documentation for the certification of specific types of products; - interacts with the manufacturer of specific types of products in its area of accreditation for timely certification of products when changing the requirements of standards; - participates in the development of corrective measures to improve the stability of the characteristics of certified products that determine the security of information; - maintains a list of certified products in its area of accreditation and prepares for publication information on the results of certification; - maintains a list of certified testing tools; - provides the applicant, at his request, with the necessary information within his competence. The certification body has the right to: refuse the applicant to certify products, indicating the reasons for the refusal and possible alternative certification options; cancel or suspend the certificates of conformity and licenses issued by him earlier for the use of the mark of conformity in case of violation by the manufacturer of the requirements of standards and other regulatory documents on information security; request and receive from applicants and testing centers (laboratories) documentation, information and materials necessary for certification work. The certification body is obliged to: comply in full with all the rules and procedures for certification established by the fundamental documents of the Certification and Attestation System for information security requirements, organizational and methodological documents of this System and other documents presented during accreditation; ensure the objectivity of the examination of the results of product testing and certification of production; ensure the preservation of state and commercial secrets in the process and upon completion of product certification, compliance with copyright; provide applicants with information about the services provided. 73. ACCREDITATION OF CERTIFICATION BODIES Accreditation - this is an official recognition by an authorized (authoritative) body of the competence of an organization to perform work in a certain (declared) area. The main objectives of accreditation are to provide credibility to organizations by confirming their competence; creation of conditions for mutual recognition of the results of activities of different organizations in the same area. The regulatory framework for accreditation in the Russian Federation is a set of state standards of the Accreditation System in the Russian Federation of the 51000 series, harmonized with the European standards EN 45000. These standards establish the basic requirements for participants in accreditation work and the procedure for their implementation. Currently, the accreditation of testing laboratories and certification bodies in the Russian Federation is carried out by divisions of Rostekhregulirovanie in the mandatory area and central bodies of certification systems in the voluntary area. In connection with the trend of separation of certification and accreditation and the creation of the Russian accreditation system, the functions of accreditation bodies are gradually transferred to other structures. In accordance with GOST R 51000.1-95, accrediting bodies must meet the following requirements: - have an appropriate legal status; - to have financial means for its functioning; - to have full-time personnel corresponding to the direction and scope of work on accreditation performed under the guidance of this body; - have an organizational structure that ensures the independence of its personnel from the influence of parties with a financial interest in the results of accreditation, and guarantees that personnel will not be subjected to unlawful pressure or influence that could affect the results of their work; - to have the necessary premises and means of labor. To obtain accreditation, the certification body for products (services) must meet the following requirements: — the certification body shall have full-time staff headed by a qualified manager. At the same time, the impact on personnel by persons or organizations that have a commercial interest in the results of the ongoing certification should be excluded; - the certification body must have the necessary funds, a fund of documents necessary for certification, and documented procedures that allow certification of products in accordance with the requirements for this area of production activity; - specialists who carry out conformity assessment of products or services, testing or inspection control should have the status of experts of the certification system in the field corresponding to the scope of accreditation of the certification body; - the certification body must have a complete list (register) of certified products or services indicating the holders of certificates or permits (licenses) for the use of the mark of conformity; - the certification body is obliged to control the use of certificates of conformity issued by it and permits for their use. 74. ACCREDITATION OF CERTIFICATION BODIES AND TESTING LABORATORIES For obtaining accreditation the testing laboratory must meet the following requirements: - the legal status of the testing laboratory must comply with the current legislation; - the personnel of the testing laboratory shall not be subjected to commercial, financial, administrative or other pressures capable of influencing conclusions or assessments; — the laboratory must be comprehensively competent to carry out the relevant tests; - the laboratory must have an internal quality assurance system appropriate to the scope of its accreditation; - the laboratory should apply the methods and procedures established by the relevant standards and specifications; - test equipment, means and measurement methods must comply with the requirements of the standards of the State System for Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements and regulatory documents for test methods; - laboratory premises must be protected from the effects of such factors as elevated temperature, dust, humidity, steam, noise, vibration, electromagnetic disturbances, and meet the requirements of test procedures, sanitary rules and regulations, labor safety and environmental protection requirements; - the laboratory must be provided with equipment and consumables (chemical reagents) for reliable testing and measurements; - the testing laboratory must comply with contracts and provide conditions that guarantee confidentiality in accordance with the requirements of customers and safe working conditions for their employees. The entire accreditation process takes place in four stages. Application stage includes the following processes: - a request from a testing laboratory or certification body about the possibility of accreditation in this body, about the requirements and rules for its implementation; - preliminary discussion of accreditation issues between the body and the applicant after reading the information materials; - application for accreditation in a special form; - registration of the application with the accreditation body; - analysis of the completeness of the application data and annexes to it; - conclusion of an agreement between the accreditation body and the applicant, which stipulates the rights and obligations of both parties. Stage of examination consists of the following processes: - appointment of experts for accreditation in agreement with the applicant; - distribution of duties during accreditation between members of the expert commission; - analysis of the accreditation body; - conducting an examination directly in the testing laboratory or certification body according to general and special criteria; - drawing up a report on the examination by members of the expert commission. Accreditation decision stage includes the following operations: - checking the results of the examination according to the report of the expert commission; - issuance of an accreditation certificate with a positive decision; - entry into the register of accredited certification bodies or testing laboratories. Stage of inspection control is that the accreditation body monitors the fulfillment of the accreditation requirements during the validity period of the certificate. It is held annually and paid by the applicant on the basis of an agreement. 75. PROCEDURE FOR CERTIFICATION IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION The certification procedure establishes the sequence of actions that make up the overall certification procedure. Certification is carried out according to a typical sequence of procedures and consists of the following stages. Application stage for certification consists in the choice by the applicant of a certification body capable of assessing the conformity of the object of interest to him. This is determined by the scope of accreditation of the certification body. The decision on the application also has a certain form. It specifies all the main conditions for certification, including the certification scheme, the name of the testing laboratory for testing or their list for the applicant to choose, the nomenclature of regulatory documents for compliance with which certification will be carried out. Conformity assessment stage has its own characteristics depending on the object of certification. The stage of analysis of the practical assessment of conformity of the object of certification is to review the results of a test, examination or quality system review by a certification body. When certifying products, the applicant submits to the body the documents specified in the decision on the application, and the test report for product samples from the testing laboratory. After that, a decision is made to issue a certificate of conformity or to conduct the missing tests. Similar actions are performed by the service certification body when checking the conformity of the result of the service. When certifying quality systems, the analysis of the results of conformity assessment is carried out on the basis of an inspection report. The conclusions on the act are reduced to one of three options: - the system fully complies with the declared standard; - the system as a whole complies with the standard, but some minor inconsistencies in the elements of the quality system were found; - the system contains significant inconsistencies. The decision to certify or refuse it is made by the management of the certification body together with the chief expert of the commission. Certification Solution accompanied by the issuance of a certificate of conformity to the applicant or refusal to do so. With positive results of the tests (checks) provided for by the certification scheme and the examination of the submitted documents, the certification body draws up a certificate of conformity, registers it and issues a license for the right to use the mark of conformity. In case of negative results of certification tests, non-compliance with the requirements for the object of certification, or the applicant's refusal to pay for certification work, the certification body issues an opinion to the applicant indicating the reasons for the refusal to issue a certificate. Inspection control over the certified object, which is carried out by the issuing body of the certificate, if it is provided for by the certification scheme during the entire period of validity of the certificate, usually once a year in the form of periodic inspections. 76. TYPES OF QUALITY AUDIT "Audit (check) — a systematic, independent and documented process for obtaining audit evidence and evaluating it objectively to determine the degree of conformity with agreed criteria” (ISO 1901 1:2002). An audit is a type of conformity assessment that is an activity that provides evidence that specified requirements relating to a product, process, system, person or organization are being met. The essence of the audit is to check the various objects in the management systems and obtain unbiased information about the compliance of these objects with the planned activities, the requirements of ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and the provisions of the organization's documents describing the sequence and content of the actions necessary to fulfill the established requirements. Quality audits are distinguished by the area audited and by purpose. In turn, the quality audit by appointment is divided into internal (audit by the manufacturer) and external (audit by the consumer or a third party). Quality audit in the audited area is divided into audit of quality systems (assessment of the quality management system or its individual elements); audit of processes (assessment of the quality of ownership of process technology); product audit (assessment of the constituent parts or the product as a whole). The audit of the quality management system is used to evaluate the effectiveness of the enterprise's quality management system using methods for monitoring its individual elements. When auditing a process, its performance is assessed in accordance with the approved technology and rules. It is applied in systems of certification and management of quality and services. Internal quality audit is necessary to obtain information about the state of affairs with quality assurance in the enterprise and is an integral element of the quality management system itself. Internal quality audits are carried out by persons who are not directly responsible for the audited areas. At the same time, interaction with the personnel of these areas is desirable. An external audit serves to verify the correctness of the quality assurance measures in the enterprise by involving external experts from a second or third party. According to the requirements of the GOST R ISO 1901 1:2002 (part 1) standard, a clear planning of audits is necessary. The audit plan should have the following sections: objectives and scope of the audit; name of the area to be checked; names of responsible persons; indication of the fundamental documents for compliance with which the audit is carried out; composition of the expert group; date and place of the audit; time schedule; fiduciary requirements; summarizing the results of the audit; audit report. The audit documentation includes, in addition to the plan, audit protocols, non-conformity registration protocols, questionnaires (checklists), reports and work forms. According to GOST R ISO 1901 1:2002 (part 2), specialists conducting an audit must meet a number of criteria in the field of education, training, experience, personal qualities, and advanced training. Auditors should be independent and give an objective assessment of quality issues. A special role is assigned to the head of the audit. He is responsible for all phases of the audit. Its tasks, in addition to auditing, are: defining the objectives of the audit; selection of expert auditors to the commission; audit planning; preparation of audit working documentation; informing the audit team about the progress of the audit; a preliminary review of the documentation on the quality assurance issue under consideration; communication to the audited party about the shortcomings noticed during the audit; conducting a final conversation following the results of the audit; drawing up an audit report. 77. CONFORMITY ASSESSMENT STAGE IN CERTIFICATION Conformity assessment stage has features depending on the object of certification. In relation to products, it consists of the selection and identification of product samples and their testing. The samples must be the same as the products supplied to the consumer. Samples are randomly selected according to established rules from finished products. Selected samples are isolated from the main products, packed, sealed or sealed at the place of sampling. An act is drawn up according to the form established in the testing laboratory. At all stages of storage, transportation and preparation of samples for testing, as well as during testing, the requirements given in the regulatory documentation for products must be observed. All stages of the movement of samples in the course of certification work are recorded in the journal and confirmed by the signature of the responsible persons. The testing laboratory or certification body may include in the selected sample one additional sample of each type of product (except perishable) for storage as a control copy. The shelf life of the latter must correspond to the validity period of the certificate or the shelf life of the products, after which the samples are returned to the applicant. Tests for certification are carried out in testing laboratories accredited to conduct those tests that are provided for in the regulatory documents used in the certification of these products. In the absence of a testing laboratory accredited for competence and independence, or its significant remoteness, which complicates the transportation of samples, increases the cost of testing and unacceptably lengthens their terms, tests for the purpose of certification can be carried out in testing laboratories accredited only for competence, under the control of representatives of the authority for specific product certification. The objectivity of such tests, along with the testing laboratory, is ensured by the certification body that entrusted it with their implementation. The test report in this case is signed by authorized specialists of the testing laboratory and the certification body. Test reports are submitted to the applicant and to the certification body. Copies of test reports are subject to storage for a period of time not less than the validity period of the certificate. Specific periods for storing copies of the protocols (including in the case when the applicant cannot be issued a certificate due to non-compliance of the products with the requirements) are established in the certification system for homogeneous products and in the documents of the testing laboratory. Based on the test results, a protocol is drawn up, which is sent to the certification body, and a copy to the applicant. Confirmation of the compliance of the enterprise's quality system with the requirements established in the relevant regulatory documents includes a preliminary assessment of the degree of readiness of the audited organization and an assessment of the quality system directly on the spot. The preliminary assessment consists in the analysis of the description of the quality system in the documents sent by the enterprise along with the application for certification. The stage of preliminary assessment of the quality system ends with the preparation of a written opinion on the possibility of conducting the second stage of certification of the quality system. 78. AUDIT TECHNIQUE FOR CONFORMITY ASSESSMENT The stage of assessing the quality system at the enterprise begins with training in the certification body. In preparation for the verification and evaluation of the quality system, the following work is performed: - draw up a program of verification; - distribute duties among the members of the commission in accordance with the verification program; - prepare working documents; - coordinate the verification programs with the audited organization. The verification program is developed by the chief expert. The experts and consultants of the commission and the audited organization must be familiar with the program. Disagreements between the chief expert and the representative of the applicant, who has the appropriate authority, are resolved before the start of the audit. Specific details of the program should only be disclosed to the applicant during the course of the review if their premature disclosure interferes with the collection of objective information. The survey of the auditee is carried out by collecting and analyzing actual data and recording observations during the audit. The collection of actual data is based on a survey of personnel, an analysis of the documents used, production processes, the activities of functional units and personnel, as well as the study and evaluation of ongoing measures to ensure product quality. Detected deviations from the requirements of the standard should be carefully considered by the review team before they are characterized as non-conformities and assigned to one category or another. The final decision is made by the Chief Expert. Registered nonconformities (notifications) are officially submitted to the management of the audited organization. The chief expert gives appropriate explanations for each discrepancy (notification). Each discrepancy must be supported by objective evidence. An authorized representative of the management of the audited organization puts his signature on the forms with inconsistencies (notifications), which confirms their acceptance. Non-compliance is the failure to meet specified requirements. Categories of non-compliance: significant (category 1), consisting in the absence, non-application or complete violation of the requirements for the elements of the quality system, and minor (category 2) - a single omission in the element of the quality system. Notification - an observation made by an examiner in order to prevent the occurrence of a possible non-compliance. The decision to recognize the quality system as conforming to the GOST R ISO 9001-2001 standard is made in the absence of significant non-compliances or the presence of no more than 10 minor non-conformities. A negative decision is made in case of one major non-compliance or more than 10 minor non-compliances. The existence of notifications does not affect the certification decision. Drawing up an act, which indicates the results of the audit, conclusions and recommendations of the commission, is carried out after the completion of the conformity assessment. At the final meeting, the chief expert submits to the management of the enterprise, chief and leading specialists the comments of the commission in order of their importance, the conclusion of the commission on the compliance or non-compliance of the tested quality system with the requirements of the declared standard. At this stage, the practical assessment of conformity in the certification of quality systems ends. 79. ISO 9000 SERIES QUALITY SYSTEM STANDARDS AND QUALITY MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES International standards of the ISO 9000:2000 series establish eight principles for managing an enterprise and production processes to achieve quality goals: all enterprise activities must be customer-oriented; manageability and observability of all processes in the enterprise; involvement and motivation of staff; approaches to management based on the process representation of all types of production activities; systematic approach to management; continuous improvement of the quality management system (QMS); all management decisions must be based on reliable evidence; establishing mutually beneficial relationships with suppliers. ISO 9001:2000 and ISO 9004:2000 are designed to be used together, but for different purposes: - ISO 9001 Quality Management System. Requirements. This standard establishes the basic requirements for the QMS; - ISO 9004 Quality Management System. Guidance for improving the characteristics of the QMS to improve the efficiency of the enterprise. This standard is aimed at the development of the QMS. ISO 9001:2000 and ISO 9004:2000 provide more clarity and detail on: the role of top management; requirements of legislation and regulations; resource management; effectiveness of training, staff awareness; adequacy of the management system, processes and products; monitoring information regarding customer satisfaction; continuous improvement. ISO 9001:2000 requires six mandatory documented procedures for the following key processes: - management of QMS documentation and records; - registration of quality; - internal audit; — management of nonconforming products; - corrective actions; - preventive actions. ISO 9001:2000 requires an organization to have documents to ensure efficient operation and control of processes. The term "documents" refers to the way in which an organization ensures that information is provided to personnel regarding the activities they perform. The minimum set of documents that are required according to ISO 9001:2000: - management commitment. Policy and objectives in the field of quality; - quality quide; - documented procedures (six mandatory); - quality records. The standard provides requirements for a QMS that an organization needs in order to: — demonstrate its ability to consistently and continuously deliver products that meet both customer and regulatory requirements; - improve customer satisfaction through the effective use of the QMS, including processes for continuous improvement of the system itself and ensuring compliance with both customer and regulatory requirements. The specific requirements of this International Standard are of a general nature and are applicable to all organizations, regardless of their type and size, as well as the products they supply. An organization can exclude only those QMS requirements that will not adversely affect the organization's ability and responsibility to provide products that meet customer requirements and applicable regulatory requirements. 80. STRUCTURE OF A DOCUMENTED QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Under documenting the quality management system refers to the activity to establish the structure and composition of documentation and the mechanism for its management. Documentation includes both the development of documentation and the management of the documentation itself during the operation of the quality system. The purpose of documenting the quality system is to create an organizational, methodological and regulatory framework for the construction and operation of the QMS that meets the recommendations and requirements of the standards of the ISO 9000:2000 family. The main tasks of documentation are: establishing and standardizing the requirements for the performance of work in the quality system; ensuring the reproducibility of quality management processes; regular registration of actual data on product quality and the state of the quality system in the course of its operation and improvement; ensuring identification and traceability of products and measuring equipment; consolidation of the best traditions and accumulated experience in organizing and carrying out work in the quality system; resolution and prevention of controversial issues in the course of activities in the quality system; ensuring product conformity assessment and quality management system. A quality system document is considered to be any material carrier of information with details that allow identifying this information. As a result of the analysis of the requirements of the standards of the ISO 9000:2000 series, it can be concluded that the following QMS documents are required as part of the internal regulatory system: management responsibility. Policy and objectives in the field of quality; quality quide; documented procedures; organization standards; primary registration documents, quality records, quality programs, quality plans, regulations on subdivisions, job descriptions, work instructions, methods, plans for various purposes, etc. The first document establishes the responsibility of the management for the quality of the enterprise's products, formulates the policy and goals in the field of quality. It is important to note that quality objectives must be measurable. The quality manual reveals the main ways to solve the tasks. It can be written as a guide to documented procedures, organization standards and other documents, providing answers to the points in ISO 9001:2000. Documented procedures describe the key processes of an enterprise. The organization's standards set out the methodology for performing critical operations or a group of operations of documented procedures. 1. Documentation on strategic and operational planning. 2. Descriptions of processes. 3. Methodical documentation. 4. Internal regulatory and technical documents. 5. Organizational and administrative documentation. 6. Organizational documentation. 81. BASIC RULES OF DOCUMENTATION Based on the purpose and objectives of documentation, the quality system documentation created at the enterprise must meet the following requirements. 1. Documentation must be systemic, i.e. structured in a certain way, with clear internal links between the elements of the quality system. It should give a clear idea of both the quality system as a whole and each of its individual elements. Documentation is fully systemic if the absence of at least one document included in it leads to a failure in the functioning of the quality system. The consistency of the documentation is also expressed in the fact that it is an integral part of the documentation of the overall enterprise management system. 2. Documentation must be complex, i.e. cover all aspects of activities in the quality system, including: organizational, economic, technical, legal, socio-psychological, methodological. 3. Documentation must be complete, i.e. contain comprehensive information about all the processes and procedures carried out in the quality system, as well as how to record quality data. At the same time, the volume of documentation should be minimal, but sufficient for practical purposes. Documentation should include both internal and external quality documents (laws, regulations, state, interstate and international standards, guidelines, etc.). 4. Documentation must be adequate recommendations and requirements of the ISO 9000:2000 family of standards. This means that each quality system document must contain provisions corresponding to specific ISO recommendations or requirements. 5. Documentation should only contain practical requirements. It is not possible to establish unrealistic positions in it. 6. Documentation must be easily identifiable. This implies that each document of the quality system must have an appropriate name, symbol and code that allows you to establish its belonging to a certain part of the system. 7. Documentation must be address, i.e. each quality system document should be designed for a specific area of application and addressed to specific performers. 8. Documentation must be updated. This means that the documentation as a whole and each of its individual documents must reflect changes in the quality assurance conditions at the enterprise in a timely manner. 9. Documentation must be understandable to all its users: managers, specialists, performers and auditors. To this end, each document should be written in simple, clear language. The text of the document should be concise, precise, not allowing various interpretations, logically consistent, including the most necessary and sufficient for its use. The document does not allow the use of turns of colloquial speech and arbitrary word formations. The provisions of the document should not contradict each other and the provisions of other documents. 10. Documentation must have sanctioned status, i.e. each quality system document and all documentation in general must be approved or signed by authorized officials. 82. QUALITY CONTROL The term "control" is usually understood as a comparison of the obtained values of indicators with the planned criteria. Depending on the object of control, control of products, services, quality systems (productions) and personnel can be carried out. All objects are controlled for compliance with the requirements of the standards established for raw materials, materials, products, equipment and tools. One of the most important characteristics of control objects is their testability, i.e., a product design property that provides the possibility, convenience and reliability of its control during manufacture, testing, maintenance and repair. In addition to the named objects, elements of the quality system and stages of the production process are subject to control. Control after any operation on the machine, press, assembly is called operational. After the manufacture of the finished part, assembly or product, acceptance control is used as a finished product; check the completeness, packaging and transportation and, finally, storage. The parameters to be checked, as well as the tools or instruments used to carry it out, are regulated by the process flow chart in the "control operation" column. Acceptance control are carried out according to state standards, general specifications and relevant specifications. Checking the conformity of characteristics, modes and other indicators, called the stage of production, is the essence of controlled operations. Depending on the volume of production, control is distinguished solid и selective. RџSЂRё solid control, the decision on the quality of products is made based on the results of checking each unit of production. At selective control, the decision on quality is made based on the results of inspections of one (several) sample, depending on the requirements of the regulatory and technical documentation from the product batch. By the nature of the impact on the course of the production process, there are active control and passive. When active (it is carried out by devices built into technological equipment), the results obtained are used to continuously control the process of manufacturing products. Passive, in turn, only fixes the result. By the nature of the impact on the object, control can be destructive, in which the product becomes unsuitable for further use for its intended purpose, and non-destructive. By the type of parameters being checked, control is carried out: geometric parameters (linear, angular dimensions, shape and location of surfaces, axes, parts, components and assemblies, etc.), physical properties (electrical, thermal, optical, etc.), as well as mechanical properties (strength, hardness, plasticity under various external conditions); micro- and macrostructures (metallographic studies) and chemical properties (chemical analysis of the composition of a substance, chemical resistance in various media). And besides this, special control (light, gas impermeability, tightness). The control process is an organized system. It has certain features that characterize its target orientation, purpose and content. The main elements of the control process are the object, method and executor of control, as well as regulatory and technical documentation for control. 83. QUALITY TESTS Tests are subjected to samples from the pilot series (the first industrial batch), as well as the first samples of products manufactured under licenses and mastered at another enterprise. RџSЂRё acceptance tests control all the values of indicators and requirements established in the terms of reference. Such testing of upgraded or modified products is carried out, where possible, by comparative testing of samples. Qualification tests carried out in cases of assessing the readiness of an enterprise to release a specific serial product, if the manufacturers of prototypes and serial products are different, as well as when launching production under licenses and mastered at another enterprise. In other cases, the need for qualification tests is established by the acceptance committee. Acceptance tests are carried out to decide on the suitability of products for delivery or their use. Tests are subjected to each manufactured unit of production (or a sample from a batch). If there is a state acceptance at the enterprise, acceptance tests are carried out by its representatives. During testing, the values of the main parameters and the performance of the product are checked. In this case, the control of the reliability indicators of products established in the regulatory and technical documentation can be carried out by indirect methods. The test procedure is established in the state standard of general technical requirements (or technical conditions), and for unit production products - in the terms of reference. Periodic tests are carried out in order to: - product quality control; - control of the stability of the technological process in the period between regular tests; - confirmation of the possibility of continuing the manufacture of products according to the current documentation and their acceptance; - confirmation of the quality level of products released during the controlled period; - confirmation of the effectiveness of the test methods used in the acceptance control. Periodic tests are intended for products of established series production. During their implementation, the values of indicators are controlled, which depend on the stability of the technological process, but are not checked during acceptance tests. For testing, they submit product samples selected in accordance with state standards, technical conditions and passed acceptance tests. The program of periodic tests is varied and as close as possible to the operating conditions. Type testing involves the control of products of the same size, which is carried out to evaluate the effectiveness and feasibility of changes made to the design or process. Tests are subjected to samples of manufactured products, the design of which has been changed. These tests are carried out by the manufacturer with the participation of representatives of the state acceptance or by a testing organization. The test program is set depending on the nature of the changes made. Inspection tests are carried out to control the quality of samples of finished products. They are carried out by authorized organizations in accordance with the regulatory and technical documentation for these products according to the program established by the organization that performs them, or agreed with it. 84. GENERAL INFORMATION ON MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT OF PROCESSES. PRINCIPLES OF MONITORING. MONITORING METHODS Monitoring is a continuous process of collecting, processing, evaluating and preparing decisions aimed at achieving the goals and objectives of the organization. Monitoring processes depend on the needs and conditions of a particular organization, but are formed on the following general principles. Comprehensiveness. Monitoring should be comprehensive, based on simple and summary measures, focusing on exceptions. Conformity. Monitoring should be consistent with the mission, vision, goals and strategy of the enterprise. Acceptability. An effective monitoring method must be acceptable to its facilities. It is necessary to respect their personal space and not interfere with daily duties. Timeliness. Monitoring data must be available, allowing deviations to be identified, which must be reported immediately in order to make correct and prompt decisions. Evidence. The information obtained during monitoring should be verifiable by other means, i.e. be accurate and, as far as possible, based on facts. Dynamism. Any form of monitoring should allow prompt corrective action. Flexibility/adaptability. The monitoring system should be easily adaptable, providing accurate, meaningful and timely information in changing circumstances. The task of monitoring is the application of all methods of quality assessment (both complex and differential). At present, complex quantitative assessments of quality are being introduced more and more into various spheres of human activity. The currently existing quality assessment methods can be described by one algorithm. Thus, it is considered that: - methods of complex quantitative assessment of quality capture more and more new areas, often far removed from the original scope of their application - only to the products of labor; - the algorithm of these methods and the principles on which they are based practically do not differ from those accepted in theoretical qualimetry; - the areas of application of many of these methods, such as management quality assessment, are extremely important. The most common methods for monitoring processes include internal and external audits and analysis of planned and implemented activities. inspection is a systematic, independent and documented process for obtaining evidence of conformity and objective evaluation in order to determine the degree to which established criteria are met. Checking allows you to determine: - confirmation of the conformity of the functioning of the process with the established requirements; - causes of nonconformities; — confirmation that corrective actions have been taken; - the degree of understanding by the staff of the goals, objectives and requirements established during the implementation of this process; - Ways to further improve the process. The relationship between process monitoring and measurements is inseparable, but monitoring is the leading one, it is for its provision that measurements are required. Changes in approaches to quality assurance, quality management and quality management have a significant impact on metrological activities in the enterprise. 85. DEVELOPMENT AND INTRODUCTION OF THE DOCUMENTS OF THE QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM The development of each quality management system document is carried out in three stages: the first stage is the development of a draft (first edition) of the document and sending it for review to the relevant departments; the second stage is the processing of feedback, the development of the final version of the document. Coordinating it with interested departments and approval by an authorized official; the third stage is registration. The developed document is assigned a certain code (cipher), which establishes its structural affiliation with the quality system documentation. In the most common coding option, the document code includes: symbol (index) of the document, digital code of the document type, digital code of the quality system type, digital code of the quality system element, serial number of the document and year of its approval. Introduction of the approved document is carried out by the development unit. If necessary, the introduction of the document is preceded by the development and implementation of organizational measures. Providing users with copies of the document is carried out by the development unit. At the same time, a strict record of issued copies is maintained. Internal documentation is developed, analyzed, agreed upon, approved and issued in accordance with the established procedure by the authorized personnel of the enterprise, who is responsible for its compliance with the requirements of ND and timely updating. The responsibility of personnel for the development and implementation of documents is determined depending on the level of the document according to the structure of the documentary base of the quality management system and should be set out in the procedure "Quality management system. Procedure for the development and implementation of internal documents of the quality management system". The scope and level of detail of the requirements and content of the documents are determined by the developer depending on the specifics and complexity of the work performed, the methods used, the training of personnel, etc. Registration of documents - in accordance with the established requirements. Enterprise standards are put into effect by the order of the director only in cases where it is necessary to provide for measures for their implementation, in all other cases - by the approving signature of the relevant official. Documents of the quality management system are registered in the register of documents of the quality management system in the prescribed manner. Document control. The control of the correctness of the presentation and execution of documents is carried out by the standardization service. Continuous (current) verification of compliance with the requirements of the document is carried out by the departments in which the document is used. Actualization. The purpose of this activity is to prevent the use of invalid or obsolete documents, in this regard, special attention is paid to the timely updating of documents, i.e. making changes and additions to them. The main factors of updating: - changes in the company's policy in the field of quality; - changes in the conditions for the performance of work regulated by the document; - changes in performance requirements; - expiration of the validity period of documents related to the performance of work; - results of internal or external audit of the quality system; - the decision of the company's management; - justified proposals of heads of departments, specialists and workers. 86. CHANGES AND ADDITIONS TO THE DOCUMENT Changes and additions to the document are made by the subdivision - the developer of the document. For convenience, changes and additions are made by replacing the corresponding sheets of the document. It is advisable to highlight the document, which has been amended or supplemented, in some way, for example, using certain color, graphic or alphabetic characters. For determining content relevance documents of the quality system and the need to make appropriate changes to them, an annual audit is carried out, which is confirmed by a mark on the title page of the document, each accounted copy. Responsibility for the revision lies with the unit responsible for the development and updating of the document. To maintain the documents in working condition, a special check is carried out, according to the results of which the state of the document is assessed and an application is made for its replacement, indicating the reasons for its unsuitability and lack of the required number of copies. All current documentation is stamped "Accounted copy". If the document has a limitation in terms of validity, the term is indicated on its title page or on the first page. Expired documents are not allowed. Its users are responsible for maintaining the documents in working order. Cancellation (cancellation) of documents is carried out: - when identifying the need to combine several existing documents into one or split one document into several in order to more fully detail the established requirements; - with significant changes in the organizational structure, production technology, product range; - when changing the type of document (for example, translating an instruction into an organization standard or vice versa). The canceled document is withdrawn from circulation and the counted copies are stamped or marked "Cancelled" signed by the person responsible for monitoring the implementation of the provisions of the document Accounting for documents. For each document, after its approval, an accounting card is created, in which the number of the copy copy, division, surname and signature of the person who received the copy is entered. In some cases, at the written request of the user, he is provided with several registered copies of the document, one of which is labeled "Control", and the rest - "Working". Original documents are recorded in the inventory journal (separately by type of document). On the free field of the cover of each document its inventory number is indicated. All original documents are stored in the quality service, and copies - in the relevant departments. For the storage of originals and copies of documents, as well as registered quality data, special places are allocated and appropriate conditions are provided to prevent damage to documents. Accounted and unaccounted copies of documents are stored separately in departments to exclude the possibility of unauthorized or accidental use of unaccounted, i.e. invalid or obsolete, documents. Each division of the enterprise maintains an inventory of the documents stored in it, which indicates the code and name of the document, the number of copies and the location of each of them. 87. PROCEDURE FOR INSPECTION CONTROL OF CERTIFIED PRODUCTS Inspection control over certified products is carried out during the entire period of validity of the certificate and license to use the mark of conformity - at least once a year in the form of periodic and unscheduled inspections, including testing of product samples and other checks necessary to confirm that the products being sold continue to comply with the established certification requirements. Unscheduled inspections can be carried out in cases of receipt of information about claims to product quality from consumers, trade organizations, as well as bodies exercising public or state control over products for which a certificate has been issued. Inspection control, as a rule, contains the following types of work: - analysis of incoming information about certified products; - creation of a commission for control; - conducting tests and analyzing their results; - registration of control results and decision-making. The results of inspection control are formalized in an act that evaluates the results of sample tests and other checks, makes a conclusion about the state of production of certified products and the possibility of maintaining the validity of the issued certificate. Based on the results of inspection control, the certification body may suspend or cancel the certificate (in this case, it suspends or revokes the license to use the mark of conformity) in case of non-compliance of products with the requirements of regulatory documents controlled during certification, as well as in the following cases: - changes in the normative document for products or test methods; - changes in the design (composition), completeness of products; - changes (non-compliance) with the requirements of technology, methods of control and testing, quality assurance system, if these changes can cause non-compliance of products with the requirements controlled during certification. When carrying out corrective actions, the certification body: - suspends the validity of the certificate and the validity of the license to use the mark of conformity; - informs interested certification participants; - establishes a deadline for the implementation of corrective actions. Manufacturer (seller): - determines the scale of detected violations: the number of products produced with violation, model, number and lot size; - notifies consumers, the public, interested organizations about the danger of using (exploiting) products. After the corrective actions are implemented and their results are satisfactory, the certification body: - indicates to the manufacturer (seller) the need for a new marking to distinguish the product before and after corrective measures, while in each specific case determines the nature and type of marking; - informs interested certification participants. If the manufacturer (seller) fails to implement corrective measures and their inefficiency, the certification body revokes the certificate and revokes the license to use the conformity mark. 88. DOCUMENTED QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Documented quality management system is a model that describes the overall management system of an organization based on the quality criteria formulated in these standards. Documentation of the quality management system is understood as the activity to establish the structure and composition of the documentation and the mechanism for its management. Documentation includes both the development of documentation and the management of the documentation itself during the operation of the quality system. First of all, it is necessary to determine the structure of the documentation (including the corresponding records - quality assurance documents) necessary for the development, implementation and maintenance of the quality management system and supporting the effective and efficient operation of the organization's processes. The nature and depth of the documentation should meet the requirements established by the contract, laws and regulations, the needs and expectations of customers and other interested parties, as well as the needs of the organization. A quality system document is considered to be any material carrier of information with details that allow identifying this information. In order to ensure that the documentation ensures that the product meets the needs and expectations of interested parties, management needs to consider: — contractual requirements of customers and other interested parties; - the organization's use of international, national, regional and industry standards for products and test methods; - relevant requirements established by laws and regulations; - decisions of the organization; - sources of external information relating to the competence of the organization; — information about the needs and expectations of interested parties. The development, use and control of records should be evaluated against the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization against criteria such as: - functioning; - user friendliness; the need for resources; policy and goals; current and future requirements; - comparison with the best documentation systems; — interactions used by the organization's customers, suppliers and other interested parties. Access to documentation is provided to employees of the organization and other interested parties based on the organization's policy in the field of information. The purpose of document management is ensure the guaranteed use of only updated documents at each workplace. The main tasks of documentation are: - establishment and standardization of requirements for the performance of work in the quality system; — ensuring the reproducibility of quality management processes; - regular registration of actual data on product quality and the state of the quality system in the course of its operation and improvement; - ensuring the identification and traceability of products and measuring equipment; - consolidation of the best traditions and accumulated experience in organizing and carrying out work in the quality system; - resolution and prevention of controversial issues in the course of activities in the quality system; - ensuring conformity assessment of products and quality management system. 89. AUDIT PRINCIPLES When conducting an audit, it is necessary to be guided by a number of principles: - ethical behavior is the basis of professionalism; - trust, honesty, confidentiality and courtesy are very important when conducting an audit; - impartiality: the obligation to provide truthful and accurate answers; — auditors' observations, audit reports and records reflect truthfully and accurately audit activities. An audit program may include one or more audits, depending on the size, nature and complexity of the organization being audited. The audit program also includes all the activities necessary to plan and organize the types and number of audits and to provide the resources to carry them out effectively within the time limit. The implementation of the audit program should include: communicating the audit program to relevant parties, coordinating and scheduling audits and other activities, defining and maintaining a process for initial assessment of auditors and ongoing assessment of training and professional development needs for auditors, establishing audit teams, providing resources to audit teams , conducting audits in accordance with the program, ensuring the management of audit records, reviewing and approving reports, distributing them to clients and other specific parties, providing verification audits when necessary. Records of audit programs should include: — audit plans; - audit reports; - nonconformity reports; — corrective and preventive action reports; - the results of the analysis of the audit program; — records of audit personnel, such as auditor evaluation, audit team selection, training. The audit plan should contain the following: — the objectives of the audit; — audit criteria and reference documents; — the scope of the audit, including the definition of the organizational and functional units and processes to be audited; - date and place of the audit; — the scheduled time and duration of the on-site audit, including meetings with auditee management and audit team meetings; - allocation of resources for the audit. The audit report should contain: audit objectives, scope of the audit, identification of audit team members, dates and locations of the on-site audit, audit criteria, audit observations, audit conclusions. The audit report should also include or make reference to the audit plan, unresolved issues between the audit team and the auditee, and the audit report mailing list. The purpose of the closing meeting is to present the audit findings and conclusion in such a way that they are understood and accepted by the audited party and consent is given to take corrective action within a specified time frame. Participants in the closing meeting should represent the auditee, the client, and other parties. Any disagreement on observations and conclusions between the audit team and the auditee should be discussed and, if possible, resolved. If there is no consensus, they must be registered. 90. VERIFICATION OF QUALITY RECORDS FOR CERTIFICATION AUDIT For an effective audit, it is recommended to develop checklists in preparation for its implementation. Purpose of the checklist - improvement of time costs. The auditor will be able to track the amount of time spent on the issues being resolved and adhere to the work schedule. Checklists will allow you to quite accurately plan the relevant requirements (clauses of the standard or guidelines), control documentation and necessary records. Records shall be maintained and maintained to provide evidence of conformity with requirements and the effectiveness of the quality management system. They must remain clear, easily identifiable and recoverable. List of quality records (in accordance with GOST R ISO 9001:2000) Author: Klochkova M.S.
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