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MOST IMPORTANT SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES
The theory of surplus value. History and essence of scientific discovery
Directory / The most important scientific discoveries Socialist doctrines are an integral element of mankind's dreams of a happy and just life. One of the very first rationally substantiated socialist ideas was expressed already in the philosophy of Plato. Since then, a huge number of them have arisen and disappeared. The most famous are the names of the great "utopian socialists": Saint-Simon, Fourier and Owen. Alas, their views in purely scientific terms were not consistent. Basically, it was a criticism of the social order that existed at that time, as well as a number of interesting guesses about the direction of future social development. However, the work of Saint-Simon, Fourier and Owen as a whole did not have serious theoretical foundations. The German Karl Marx undertook to correct this shortcoming. Karl Marx (1818–1883) was born into the family of a successful lawyer in Trier. His father sent him to study at the University of Bonn. There Marx became interested in philosophy and soon became an active participant in a seminar led by Professor Rugge. When he was deprived of his chair for progressive views, Marx moved to Berlin in 1836. After a brilliant defense of his doctoral dissertation, Marx had to leave the university to prepare for a professorship. However, he did not agree with the conservative policy of the university leadership and refused such an advantageous offer for him. After that, the doors of German universities were closed to him. In 1842, Karl left Germany and went to England, where he first met Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), who became his friend, colleague and co-author. Marx began his social activities as a journalist, setting off in 1843 around Europe. He then moved to Brussels where he met Engels. Together they created the Union of Communists and in 1848 wrote the "Manifesto of the Communist Party", where, in particular, they wrote that the struggle of the workers could end in a revolution, during which the capitalist system would be replaced by a communist one. Such ideas caused a shock in the government circles of continental Europe, after which Marx was expelled from Brussels, and then from France and Germany. In 1849 Marx moved to London with his family. It was there, with the help of Engels, that he began to develop his communist ideas. Engels owned a weaving factory in Manchester, which provided the source material for Marx's economic writings. In 1867, Marx published the first volume of Capital, which became the main work of his life. After his death, Engels published the second and third volumes. In this book, Marx tried to foresee the future and wrote that the concentration of business management in the hands of a very few wealthy capitalists would cause economic chaos. And then the revolution will begin, and the workers will prevail. Marx's economic theory is based on the concepts of value and surplus value developed by David Ricardo (1772–1823), who of all the classical predecessors was closest to his position. Marx modified them to justify the inevitability of the triumph of socialist ideals. The cornerstone of Marx's economic theory is the doctrine of surplus value. Approaching the study of surplus value, Marx points out: “Nature does not produce, on the one side, owners of money and goods, on the other side, owners of labor power alone. This relation is neither created by nature itself, nor such a social relation that would be characteristic of all historical It is obviously itself the result of previous historical development, the product of many economic upheavals, the product of the death of a number of more ancient formations of social production. Surplus value is the difference between the value created by the labor of the wage worker and the value of his labor power. The capitalist receives it when the goods created by the labor of hired workers are sold and the amount of money received from their sale exceeds his costs for the production of these goods. Thus, the capitalist will receive his income after the completion of the circulation of capital. The capitalist's income appears as the difference between the selling price of a commodity and the amount of capital expended on its production, as a product of capital. Surplus value, as Marx showed, cannot arise from commodity circulation, since it knows only the exchange of equivalents. Nor can it arise from a surcharge on the price of commodities, since the mutual losses and gains of buyers and sellers would be balanced, but in fact the entire capitalist class is enriched. Thus, the increase in the value of money, which must be converted into capital, implies that the owner of money must find on the market "a commodity whose use-value itself would have the original property of being a source of value - such a commodity, the actual consumption of which would be the process of objectification of labor. and therefore a process of value creation. And the owner of money finds in the market such a specific commodity: it is the ability to work, or labour-power." Capitalism is the highest stage in the development of commodity production, at which not only the product of labor, but also the labor power of man becomes a commodity. Previous economists identified surplus value with one or another of its specific forms - profit, rent, interest. Marx first investigated the process of production of surplus value, regardless of the forms in which it manifests itself on the surface of the life of bourgeois society. Then, after examining the movement of capital, he showed how surplus value appears in the form of profit, interest, and rent. As a source of value, labor itself has no value. “As a value-creating activity, it also cannot have a special value, just as gravity cannot have a special weight, heat cannot have a special temperature, electricity cannot have a special current strength.” The worker sells to the capitalist not labor, but labor power. When labor power becomes a commodity - and this happens only under certain historical conditions - its value is determined by the labor socially necessary for its production and reproduction. "In other words, - writes V.A. Leontiev in the book "On the study of 'Capital' by K. Marx", - the capitalist is enriched not as a result of violation of the law of value, but, on the contrary, as a result of the operation of this law, its further development and distribution, its most complete domination, when man's labor power also becomes a commodity. The buyer of this specific commodity "also owns the functioning of labor power, the limits of which by no means coincide with the limits of the quantity of labor necessary for the reproduction of its own price." It is this circumstance that determines the production of surplus value. "The surplus labor of labor power is free labor for capital and therefore constitutes surplus value for the capitalist, a value for which he pays no equivalent." "Only the form in which this surplus labor is squeezed out of the direct producer, the worker, distinguishes the economic formations of society, for example, a society based on slavery, from a society of wage labor." Under capitalism the thirst for surplus labor is absolutely boundless. Capital exhibits a "truly lupine greed for surplus labour." “Having clarified the essence of capital and the secret of its self-growth, Marx proceeds to consider the production of absolute surplus value,” notes L.A. Leontiev. “In this regard, he gives an extremely important analysis of the labor process under capitalism, when the labor process is the unity of the labor process and the process increase in value, or the production of surplus value. Marx shows that the value of a commodity, labor power, and the value that the capitalist obtains through the productive consumption of this commodity, are two different magnitudes... ... Marx was the first to reveal the difference between constant and variable capital: dead labor, embodied in constant capital, is opposed to living labor, capable of not only preserving and transferring old value to a product, but also creating new value. The division of capital into fixed and variable is of paramount importance in Marx's theory of surplus value. As a result, that part of the capital, to which the capital owes its increase, is separated from the other part, which does not change in size. This division of capital is a natural conclusion and consequence of Marx's analysis of the dual character of labor... ... The capitalist is not interested in the use value of the goods produced at his enterprise, but in their value, since it contains the surplus value produced by the unpaid labor of the workers. Its goal is not to satisfy the needs of society, but to obtain surplus value, to increase the value of capital." K. Marx: "As the unity of the process of labor and the process of value formation, the production process is the process of production of goods; as the unity of the process of labor and the process of increasing value, it is the capitalist process of production, the capitalist form of commodity production." The production of surplus value is the goal of the whole process. The worker is transformed into "personified labor time," just as the capitalist appears as personified capital. Having defined the concept of relative surplus value, Marx next explores the three main historical stages in the increase in the productivity of labor by capitalism: simple capitalist cooperation, division of labor and manufacture, machinery and large-scale industry. Like all other means of developing the productivity of labor, machines under capitalism are designed to reduce the cost of goods and thereby reduce the necessary part of the working day so that surplus labor time can increase: they are nothing more than a "means of production of surplus value." “The question arises: in the light of what has been said, how should one treat Marx as a theorist-economist?” V.N. Kostyuk writes in his book. who is dissatisfied with his social position? In answering these questions, it is best ... to proceed from the structure of Marx's theory itself, as it is presented in Capital and in his other works. And then it will turn out that his theory, which is very interesting in certain aspects (variable capital, surplus value, reproduction schemes, etc.), is logically incompatible on the whole (i.e., all the statements he made cannot turn out to be true together). It is possible, as we have shown, to accept either his theory of surplus value or his theory of economic development under the influence of scientific and technical progress. Each of them has its own merits. However, both these theories cannot be accepted simultaneously, since their premises are incompatible. Author: Samin D.K.
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