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MOST IMPORTANT SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES
Linguistic theory of Humboldt. History and essence of scientific discovery
Directory / The most important scientific discoveries The basic concepts of grammar were finally formed in Alexandria. The "syntax" of Apollonius Discolus (XNUMXnd century) and the grammar of Dionysius of Thrace were considered exemplary. Greek grammars of late antique and Byzantine times were mainly composed on their basis. The ideas of the Alexandrians quickly penetrated into Rome. In the 116st century BC, the first major grammarian Mark Terentius Varro (27-XNUMX BC) appeared there. Varro and other Roman scholars adapted the Greek schemes of description to the Latin language quite easily and with only minimal changes. The ancient tradition was finally recorded in two Late Antique Latin grammars: the grammar of Donatus (XNUMXrd–XNUMXth centuries) and the multi-volume grammar of Priscian (the first half of the XNUMXth century). Throughout the Middle Ages, two grammars served as models. As noted by V.M. Alpatov: "After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the European tradition finally broke up into two variants: Eastern, Greek, and Western, Latin, which were already developing without any connection with each other. For several centuries, medieval linguistics, both in the East and in the West, contributed little new in the science of language. A new stage in the development of Western European linguistics began with the appearance in the XN-XIII centuries of philosophical grammars, which sought not to describe, but to explain certain linguistic phenomena. There was a school of modists, which worked from the beginning of the XIII century to the beginning of the XIV century; the most famous of the modists, Thomas of Erfurt, who wrote his work in the first decade of the fourteenth century.The modists were not so much interested in the facts of the Latin language (where they mainly followed Priscianus), but in the general properties of the language and its relationship to the external world and to the world of thought.Modists first tried to establish connection between the grammatical categories of language and the deep properties of things.Modists also contributed to the study of syntax, insufficiently developed in ancient science ... ... After Thomas of Erfurt, for about two centuries, the theoretical approach to language did not receive significant development. However, it was precisely at this time that a new view of languages was gradually emerging, which ultimately singled out the European linguistic tradition from all the others. The idea of a plurality of languages and the possibility of their comparison appeared. In the 1515th century, after a break, the theory of language began to develop again. So the French scientist Pierre de la Rama (Ramus) (1672–1550) completed the creation of the conceptual apparatus and terminology of syntax, which had been begun earlier by modists. It should be noted that it is he who owns the system of sentence members that has survived to this day. The Spaniard F. Sanchez (Sanctius) (1610-XNUMX) at the end of the sixteenth century creates a theoretical grammar, written in Latin, but already taking into account the material of various languages. For the first time, Sanchez also has some ideas, which were later reflected in the grammar of Port-Royal. Linguistics of the 1660th century mainly went in the field of theory in two ways: deductive and inductive. The most famous and popular example of the inductive approach, associated with an attempt to identify the general properties of real-life languages, was the so-called Port-Royal grammar. It was first published in 1612. It is characteristic that the names of its authors Antoine Arnault (1694-1615) and Claude Lanslo (1695-XNUMX) were not indicated. As the authors write, the impetus for writing it was "the path of searching for reasonable explanations for many phenomena, either common to all languages, or inherent only in some of them." The authors of the grammar proceeded from the existence of a common logical basis of languages, from which specific languages deviate to one degree or another. The authors of the Port-Royal Grammar differed from the modists not so much in the very idea of the basis of languages, but in the understanding of what this basis represents. During the XNUMXth century, general rational grammars in the spirit of the Port-Royal Grammar continued to be compiled. However, such grammars did not contain particularly new ideas. Finally, a fairly developed theory of the origin and development of the language for those years was proposed by E. Condillac. In his opinion, language in its early stages developed from unconscious cries to their conscious use. Having gained control over sounds, man was able to control his mental operations. The French philosopher also developed the concept of a single path for the development of languages. But at the same time, languages go through this path at different speeds a, therefore some languages are more perfect than others. In the words of V. Thomsen, the entire XNUMXth century the comparative historical method "was in the air." But some push was needed, which would become the starting point for the crystallization of the method. Such an impetus was the discovery of Sanskrit at the end of the century. After the appearance of this missing link, a rapid development of research in the field of comparison of European languages with Sanskrit and among themselves began. Just three decades after the discovery of Sanskrit, in 1816, the first fully scientific work appeared, laying the foundations for the comparative historical method, that was the book of Franz Bopp (1791-1867). In 1818, the Dane Rasmus Rask (1787-1832) published his work "Study in the field of the Old Norse language, or the pro-descent of the Icelandic language." A year later, the first volume of the German Grammar by Jacob Grimm (1785–1863) was published. In 1820, a book by the Russian scientist A.Kh. Vostokova - "Reasoning about the Slavic language". In these writings, the comparative historical method was first formed. However, the general theoretical, philosophical approach to language in the first half of the 1767th century reached its highest development in Humboldt's theory. Wilhelm von Humboldt (1835–XNUMX) was one of the greatest theoretical linguists in the world of science. V. A. Zvegintsev aptly said about his role in linguistics: “Having put forward an original concept of the nature of language and raising a number of fundamental problems that are currently at the center of lively discussions, he, like an unconquered mountain peak, rises above the heights that others have managed to achieve. researchers." "W. von Humboldt was a versatile person with diverse interests," writes V.M. Alpatov. "He was a Prussian statesman and diplomat, held ministerial posts, played a significant role in the Vienna Congress, which determined the structure of Europe after the University, now bearing the names of him and his brother, the famous naturalist and traveler A. von Humboldt. He owns works on philosophy, aesthetics and literary criticism, legal sciences, etc. His works on linguistics are not so large in volume, but in the history of science he entered first of all as a linguist-theorist ... ... W. von Humboldt was mainly engaged in linguistics in the last decade and a half of his life, after retiring from active state and diplomatic activities. Academy of Sciences in 1820. Somewhat later, another of his works appeared - "On the emergence of grammatical forms and their influence on the development of ideas." In the last years of his life, the scientist worked on the work "On the Kawi language on the island of Java", which he did not have time to complete. His introductory part "On the difference in the structure of human languages and its influence on the spiritual development of mankind" was written, published posthumously in 1848. This is undoubtedly the main linguistic work of W. von Humboldt, in which his theoretical concept is most fully expounded. Already at the very beginning of the XNUMXth century, Humboldt set the task of "transforming linguistics into a systematic science." “The linguistic teaching of Humboldt,” writes I.G. Zubova, “arose in line with the ideas of German classical philosophy. Humboldt adopted and applied to the analysis of language its main achievement - the dialectical method, according to which the world is considered in development as a contradictory unity of opposites , as a whole, permeated with universal connections and mutual transitions of individual phenomena and their aspects, as a system, the elements of which are determined by the place occupied within its framework.Humboldt develops, in relation to language, the ideas of activity, the active principle in man, the activity of human consciousness, including the active nature of contemplation and unconscious processes, the creative role of imagination, fantasy in the process of cognition.Thanks to the increased interest in nature, in the natural (natural) principle in man, in sensibility, the ideas of the unity of sensual and rational cognition are affirmed in philosophy.These ideas, as well as ideas the unity of the conscious and the unconscious in cognitive, creative activity, found expression in the linguistic concept of Humboldt. The heightened interest in each person, characteristic of romantics, is combined in Humboldt, as well as in other philosophers of that time, with the recognition of the social nature of man, with the idea of the unity of human nature. The scientist identifies four stages or stages in the development of languages: “At the lowest stage, grammatical designation is carried out using turns of speech, phrases and sentences ... At the second stage, grammatical designation is carried out using a stable word order and using words with an unstable real and formal meaning .. At the third stage, grammatical designation is carried out with the help of analogues of forms ... At the highest level, grammatical designation is carried out with the help of genuine forms, inflections and purely grammatical forms. At the same time, he believes that language is not the creation of an individual, but always belongs to a whole people. Later generations receive it from past generations. According to Humboldt, "language is closely intertwined with the spiritual development of mankind and accompanies it at every stage of its local progress or regress, reflecting in itself every stage of culture." He believes that, compared with other types of culture, language is the least connected with consciousness. A similar idea about the completely unconscious development of language and the impossibility of intervening in it was later developed by Saussure and other linguists. Without language, a person can neither think nor develop: "The creation of a language is due to the internal need of mankind. Language is not just an external means of communication between people, maintaining social relations, but is inherent in the very nature of man and is necessary for the development of his spiritual forces and the formation of a worldview, and a person can only achieve this when he puts his thinking in connection with social thinking. According to the scientist, the spirit of the people and the language of the people are inseparable: "The spiritual identity and the structure of the language of the people are in such close fusion with each other that as soon as one exists, the other must necessarily follow from this ..." However, it is impossible to understand how the spirit of the people is realized in the language, without a correct understanding of what language is. Humboldt gives a definition of the language that has become famous: “In its actual essence, language is something permanent and at the same time transient at every given moment. Even its fixation through writing is a far from perfect mummy-like state, which involves recreating it in living speech. Language is not a product of activity (ergon), but activity (energeia). Its true definition can therefore only be genetic. Language is the constantly renewed work of the mind, aimed at making an articulated sound suitable for the expression of thought. In a true and real sense, under language it is possible to understand only the totality of acts of speech activity.In the disorderly chaos of words and rules, which we habitually call language, there are only separate elements reproduced - and, moreover, incompletely - by speech activity; to make a true picture of a living language, it is impossible to know from scattered elements what is highest and subtlest in language; this can only be comprehended and caught in coherent speech... The division of language into words and rules is only a dead product of scientific analysis. The definition of language as an activity of the spirit is perfectly correct and adequate, if only because the being of the spirit in general can be conceived only in activity and as such. According to Humboldt, language consists of matter and form. At the same time, it is the form that makes up the essence of the language: "The constant and uniform in this activity of the spirit, which elevates the articulate sound to the expression of thought, taken in the totality of its connections and systematicity, constitutes the form of the language." The form "is a purely individual impulse, through which this or that people embodies their thoughts and feelings in the language." Humboldt emphasized the creative nature of language: “In language, one should see not some material that can be surveyed in its entirety or transmitted part by part, but an organism that eternally generates itself, in which the laws of generation are certain, but the volume and, to a certain extent, also the way generations remain completely arbitrary. The acquisition of language by children is not an acquaintance with words, not a simple bookmarking of them in memory and not an imitative babbling repetition of them, but the growth of language ability with years and exercise. In these phrases there is already much of what the science of language has come to in recent decades, the very term "generation" is indicative. “Of course,” writes V.M. Alpatov, “much of W. von Humboldt is outdated. This especially applies to his study of specific linguistic material, often not completely reliable. Only his ideas of stadiality and attempts to single out more or less developed languages are of historical significance However, one can only be surprised at how many ideas that linguistics considered over the next more than a century and a half were expressed in one form or another by a scientist of the first half of the XNUMXth century.Of course, many problems first raised by W. von Humboldt are extremely relevant, and science is only beginning to approach the solution of some of them. Author: Samin D.K.
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